Country in West Asia
"KSA" and "Saudi Arab" redirect here. For other uses, see KSA (disambiguation) and Saudi.

Kingdom of Saudi Arabiaالمملكة العربية السعودية (Arabic)al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya
        
            
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    Motto: لَا إِلهَ إِلَّا اللَّهُ، مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh (Shahada)"There is no god but God; Muhammad is the messenger of God"[1][a]Anthem: النشيد الوطني السعوديan-Našīd al-Waṭaniyy as-Suʿūdiyy  "Chant of the Saudi Nation"Show globeShow map of Saudi ArabiaCapitaland largest cityRiyadh24°39′N 46°46′E / 24.650°N 46.767°E / 24.650; 46.767Official languagesArabic[5]Religion Sunni Islam (official)[6]DemonymsSaudiSaudi ArabianGovernmentUnitary Islamic absolute monarchy• King Salman• Crown Prince and Prime Minister Mohammed bin Salman
LegislatureConsultative Assembly[b]Establishment• Emirate of Diriyah 22 February 1727• Emirate of Nejd 1824• Emirate of Riyadh 15 January 1902• Emirate of Nejd and Hasa 6 May 1913• Sultanate of Nejd 2 November 1921• Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd and Its Dependencies 29 January 1927• Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 23 September 1932• Current constitution 31 January 1992
Area • Total2,149,690[9] km2 (830,000 sq mi) (12th)• Water (%)0.7Population• 2024 census 33,702,731[10] (42nd)• Density15/km2 (38.8/sq mi) (218th)GDP (PPP)2026 estimate• Total $2.895 trillion[11] (17th)• Per capita $78,815[11] (19th)GDP (nominal)2026 estimate• Total $1.389 trillion[11] (19th)• Per capita $37,811[11] (37th)Gini (2013) 45.9[12]medium inequalityHDI (2023) 0.900[13]very high (37th)CurrencySaudi riyal (SR)[c] (SAR)Time zoneUTC+3 (SAST)Calling code+966ISO 3166 codeSAInternet TLD.saالسعودية.

Saudi Arabia,[d] officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA),[e] is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about 2,150,000 km2 (830,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the largest in the Middle East, and the twelfth-largest in the world. It is bordered by the Red Sea to the west; Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north; the Arabian Gulf, Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east; Oman to the southeast; and Yemen to the south. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from Egypt and Israel.[15][16] Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland, steppe, and mountains. The capital and largest city is Riyadh; other major cities include Jeddah and the two holiest cities in Islam, Mecca and Medina. With a population of 33.7 million, Saudi Arabia is the sixth most populous country in the Arab world.

Pre-Islamic Arabia, the territory that constitutes modern-day Saudi Arabia, was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the archaeological study of the prehistory of Saudi Arabia has identified some of the earliest traces of human activity outside Africa.[17] Islam emerged in what is now Saudi Arabia in the early seventh century. Islamic prophet Muhammad united the population of the Arabian Peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territories in North Africa, Central, South Asia and Iberia within decades.[18][19][20] Arab dynasties originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates, as well as numerous other Muslim states in Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by King Abdulaziz, who united Hejaz, Najd, parts of Eastern Arabia and South Arabia into a single state through a series of military and political campaigns beginning in 1902. The Kingdom is the Third Saudi State and the successor to the First Saudi State (1727–1818) and the Second Saudi State (1824–1891). The country has since been governed as an absolute monarchy under the House of Saud.[21] In its Basic Law, Saudi Arabia defines itself as a sovereign Arab Islamic state with Islam as its official religion and Arabic as its official language. The ultraconservative Wahhabi religious movement within Sunni Islam was the prevailing political and cultural force until the 2000s.[22][23] The Saudi government has attracted criticism for various policies such as its intervention in the Yemeni Civil War, restrictions on political and civil liberties, and poor human rights record.[24][25][26] Since the mid-2010s, Saudi Arabia has instituted limited and gradual reforms to liberalize social, cultural, and religious life.[27]

Saudi Arabia is considered both a regional and middle power,[28][29] in addition to being a major non-NATO ally of the United States.[30] Since petroleum was discovered in the country in 1938,[31][32] the kingdom has become the world's second-largest oil producer and leading oil exporter, controlling the world's second-largest oil reserves and sixth-largest gas reserves.[33] Saudi Arabia is categorized as a World Bank high-income economy and is the only Arab country among the G20 major economies.[34][35] The Saudi economy is the largest in the Middle East and the world's nineteenth-largest by nominal GDP and seventeenth-largest by PPP. Ranking very high in the Human Development Index,[36] Saudi Arabia offers free university tuition, no personal income tax,[37] and free universal health care. With its dependence on foreign labour, Saudi Arabia has the world's third-largest immigrant population, with foreign-born residents comprising roughly 40% of the population.[38] Saudi Arabians are among the world's youngest people, with approximately half being under 25 years old.[39][40] Saudi Arabia is a member of the Gulf Cooperation Council, United Nations, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Arab League, and OPEC, as well as a dialogue partner of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation.



See also: House of Saud and Arab (etymology)

Following the amalgamation of the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd, Abdulaziz issued a royal decree on 23 September 1932 naming the new state al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya (Arabic المملكة العربية السعودية), which is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English,[41] but literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom",[42] or "the Saudi Kingdom of Arabia" (compare the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan).

The word "Saudi" is derived from the element as-Suʿūdīyya in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a nisba, formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family, the Al Saud (Arabic: آل سعود). Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family.[43][44] Al Saud is an Arabic name formed by adding the word Al, meaning "family of" or "House of",[45] to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of Al Saud, this is Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin, the father of the dynasty's 18th-century founder, Muhammad bin Saud.[46]


Main article: History of Saudi Arabia


Anthropomorphic stela (4th millennium BCE), sandstone, 57x27 cm, from El-Maakir-Qaryat al-Kaafa (National Museum of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh)

There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about 125,000 years ago.[47] A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left Africa about 75,000 years ago across the Bab-el-Mandeb connecting the Horn of Africa and Arabia.[48] The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of humanity. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the Quaternary that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia's rich Lower Paleolithic record, marked by numerous Oldowan-like sites, indicates a significant role in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia.[49]

In the Neolithic period, prominent cultures such as Al-Magar, whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills.[50] The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse.[51][52] Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants.[53]

In 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the Canaan Dog) were discovered in northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than 8,000 years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world.[54]

At the end of the 4th millennium BCE, Arabia entered the Bronze Age; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2 m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours.[55]

In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a 350,000-year-old Acheulean site named An Nasim in the Hail region could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia. Paleolithic artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in the Nefud Desert.[56][57][58][59]


Main article: Pre-Islamic Arabia

The "Worshipping Servant" statue (2500 BCE), above one metre (3 ft 3 in) in height, is much taller than any possible Mesopotamian or Harappan models. Photo courtesy of the National Museum of Korea.[60]

The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates to the Ubaid period at Dosariyah. Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium.[61] The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of Dilmun in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from Uruk refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the Eastern Province, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that Tarout Island was the main port and the capital of Dilmun.[60] Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggest that, in the early period of Dilmun, a hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded a large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BCE). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun.[60]

By 2200 BCE, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and the Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered.[60]

Qaṣr Al-Farīd, the largest of the 131 rock-cut monumental tombs built from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE, with their elaborately ornamented façades, at the extensive ancient Nabatean archaeological site of Hegra located in the area of Al-'Ula within Al Madinah Region in the Hejaz. A UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2008.

By the late Bronze Age, a historically recorded people and land (Midian and the Midianites) in the north-western portion of Saudi Arabia are well-documented in the Bible. Centred in Tabouk, it stretched from Wadi Arabah in the north to the area of al-Wajh in the south.[62] The capital of Midian was Qurayyah,[63] it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants.[64] The Bible recounts Israel's two wars with Midian, in the early 11th century BCE. Politically, the Midianites were described as having a decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appear to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements.[65] It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away as Palestine.[66] The nomadic Midianites were one of the earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region.[66]

Colossal statue from Al-'Ula in the Hejaz (6th–4th century BCE), it followed the standardized artistic sculpting of the Lihyanite kingdom. The original statue was painted with white. (Louvre Museum, Paris)[67]

At the end of the 7th century BCE, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of Lihyan.[68][69] During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain.[68] In the early 3rd century BCE, with bustling economic activity between the south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road.[70] The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from Yathrib in the south and parts of the Levant in the north.[71] In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired.[72]

The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the Nabataeans around 65 BCE upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to Tayma, and to their capital Dedan in 9 BCE. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by the Roman Empire, which renamed it Arabia Petraea, and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630.[73]


Main article: Caliphate

At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) covered 11100000 km2 (4300000 sq mi)[74] and 62 million people (29 per cent of the world's population),[75] making it one of the largest empires in history in both area and proportion of the world's population. It was also larger than any previous empire in history.

Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies.[76] Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 CE. In the early 7th century, Muhammad united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity.[77] Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west, to parts of Central and South Asia in the east, in a matter of decades.[18][19][20] Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the newly conquered lands.[77]

Arabs originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Hejaz in particular, founded the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517), and the Fatimid (909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the Sharif of Mecca, but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in Baghdad, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.[78][79]

The Battle of Badr, 13 March 624 CE
For much of the 10th century, the Isma'ili-Shi'ite Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the Black Stone.[80] In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated the Qarmatians in Bahrain and al-Hasa with the help of the Seljuq Empire and founded the Uyunid dynasty.[81][82] The Uyunid Emirate later underwent expansion, with its territory stretching from Najd to the Syrian Desert.[83] They were overthrown by the Usfurids in 1253.[84] Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of Hormuz captured Bahrain and Qatif in 1320.[85] The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia Jarwanid dynasty came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century.[86][87] The Jabrids took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay tribute in 1507.[86] Al-Muntafiq tribe later took over the region and came under Ottoman suzerainty. The Bani Khalid tribe later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control.[88] Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty.[89][90]


Main articles: Ottoman era in the history of Saudi Arabia, Mamluk–Portuguese conflicts, and Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations

In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Aseer and Al-Ahsa) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean.[91] The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the empire's central authority.[92][93] These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over the inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an, including the cities of Ma'an and Aqaba.


See also: Unification of Saudi Arabia

Expansion of the first Saudi State in 1810
The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of Diriyah in central Arabia with the accession as emir of Muhammad bin Saud on 22 February 1727.[94][95] In 1744 he joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab,[96] founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.[97] This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.[98]

The Emirate of Diriyah established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, sacking Karbala in 1802, and capturing Mecca in 1803. In 1818, it was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha.[99] The much smaller Emirate of Nejd was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid, who ruled the Emirate of Jabal Shammar. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.[78]

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Ibn Saud, the founding father and first king of Saudi Arabia, in Egypt in 1945
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers,[100][101] with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.[102] In 1902, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdulaziz—later known as Ibn Saud—recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating the third "Saudi state".[78] Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan, a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by Faisal Al-Dawish, and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912.[103] With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913.

In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.[104] Although the revolt failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became King of Hejaz.[105]

Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title Sultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz.[106] For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units.[78]

After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the Battle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred.[107] On Ibn Saud's behalf, Prince Faisal declared the unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.[78] That date is now a national holiday called Saudi National Day.[108]


Main article: Modern history of Saudi Arabia

The oil well Dammam No. 7 on March 4, 1938, the day it struck oil in commercial quantities, becoming the first in Saudi Arabia to do so
The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.[109] In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company). Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally.[78] Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing.[78] In 1953, Saud of Saudi Arabia succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brother Faisal of Saudi Arabia, after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained a 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil.[110] In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an oil boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices.[78] In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half-brother King Khalid.[111]Faisal (left) with Egypt's President Gamal Abdel Nasser in Cairo, 1969
By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.[112] Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;[78] in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.[111] In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government[113] and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country's Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the 1979 Qatif Uprising.[114] The second event was the Grand Mosque Seizure in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government.[114] The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the ulema a greater role in government.[115] Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.[116]

Map of Saudi Arabian administrative regions and roadways
In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco.[117] King Khalid died in 1982 and was succeeded by his brother, King Fahd. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.[78] The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family[78] leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.[118]

In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait spent $25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988);[119] however, Saudi Arabia condemned the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked the United States to intervene.[78] King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as the Gulf War (1990–1991).[110]

Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in East Africa and the 2000 USS Cole bombing near the port of Aden, Yemen. 15 of the hijackers involved in the September 11 attacks were Saudi nationals.[120] Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies.[121]

Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "Basic Law", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]."[78]

In 1995, Fahd suffered a stroke, and the Crown Prince, Abdullah, became de facto regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven").[122]


Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar.[123] In February–April 2005, the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part.[78]

In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister.[78] On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people.[124]

Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi with King Salman, U.S. President Donald Trump and First Lady Melania participating in the inaugural opening of the Global Center to Combat Extremism, Sunday, May 21, 2017

Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own Arab Spring protests.[125] In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing.[126][127][128] No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.[129] Abdullah also announced a package of $93 billion, which included 500,000 new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating 60000 new security jobs.[130][131] Although male-only municipal elections were held in 2011,[132][133] Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in the 2015 municipal elections, and also to be nominated to the Shura Council.[134]


Main article: Geography of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia topography
Harrat Khaybar seen from the International Space Station. Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2000 dormant volcanoes.[135] Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi).[136]

Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula (the world's largest peninsula),[137] lying between latitudes 16° and 33° N, and longitudes 34° and 56° E. Because the country's southeastern and southern borders with the United Arab Emirates and Oman are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country is undefined.[137] The United Nations Statistics Division estimates 2149690 km2 (830000 sq mi) and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's 12th largest state. It is geographically the largest country in the Middle East and on the Arabian Plate.[138]

Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert, associated semi-desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The 647500 km2 (250001 sq mi) Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in the southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert.[139][140] Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world without permanent rivers. The nation features several endorheic lakes, but its hydrology relies primarily on ephemeral watercourses known as wadis, which are numerous throughout the kingdom. The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.[139] There are approximately 1,300 islands in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.[141]

The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the Nejd and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah, parallel to which runs along an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of Aseer is mountainous and contains the 3015 m (9892 ft) Jabal Soudah, which is the highest point in the country.[139] Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2,000 dormant volcanoes.[135] Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some 180,000 square kilometres (69,000 sq mi).[136]

Except for the southwestern regions such as Aseer, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with very high day-time temperatures during the summer and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around 45 °C (113 °F) but can be as high as 54 °C (129 °F). In the winter the temperature rarely drops below 0 °C (32 °F) with the exception of mostly the northern regions of the country where annual snowfall, in particular in the mountainous regions of Tabuk Province, is not uncommon.[142] The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0 °C (10.4 °F), was measured in Turaif.[143] Of the Gulf states, Saudi Arabia is likely to experience snowfalls most frequently.[144]

In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around 29 °C (84 °F). Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of 300 mm (12 in) of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60% of the annual precipitation.[145]


Main article: Wildlife of Saudi Arabia

The critically endangered Arabian leopardThe Arabian horse is native to Arabia, and an important element of traditional Arabian folklore.
Saudi Arabia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert, Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna, Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands, Arabian Desert, and Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert.[146] Wildlife includes the Arabian leopard,[147][148] Arabian wolf, striped hyena, mongoose, baboon, Cape hare, sand cat, and jerboa. Animals such as gazelles, oryx, leopards and cheetahs[149] were relatively numerous until the 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals almost to extinction. The culturally important Asiatic lion occurred in Saudi Arabia until the late 19th century before it was hunted to extinction in the wild.[150] Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sandgrouse, and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Domesticated animals include the legendary Arabian horse, Arabian camel, sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, chickens, etc.

The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem with more than 1,200 species of fish[151] around 10% of which are endemic.[152] This also includes 42 species of deep water fish.[151] The rich diversity is partly owed to the 2000 km (1240 mi) of coral reef extending along the coastline; these fringing reefs are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole at Dahab). These coastal reefs are also visited by pelagic species, including some of the 44 species of shark. There are many offshore reefs including several atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area.

Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants, and shrubs that require little water. The date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is widespread, and is a national symbol.[139]


Main article: Politics of Saudi Arabia

Salman bin Abdulaziz Al SaudKingMohammed bin SalmanCrown Prince and Prime Minister

Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy;[153] however, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran, while the Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution.[154] No political parties or national elections are permitted.[153] While some critics consider it to be a totalitarian state,[155][156] others regard it as lacking aspects of totalitarianism but nevertheless classify it as an authoritarian regime.[157][158][159] The Economist ranked the Saudi government 150th out of 167 in its 2022 Democracy Index,[160] and Freedom House gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it a score of 8 out of 100 for 2023.[161] In the V-Dem Democracy Indices, Saudi Arabia ranks amongst the lowest as a "closed autocracy," ranking at 179th and 167th out of 179 countries in electoral democracy and liberal democracy indices respectively.[162] Additionally, according to International IDEA's Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Saudi Arabia performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political representation, including credible elections, inclusive suffrage and effective parliament.[163][164][165]

In the absence of national elections and political parties,[153] politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.[166] Participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and business elite on major decisions.[139] This process is not reported by the Saudi media.[167]
King Khalid (right) meeting Egypt's president Anwar Sadat with crown prince Fahd in the background at Cairo Airport in 1975
By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis.[168] In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation. Tribal sheikhs continue to exert a considerable degree of influence over local and national events.[139] In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.[169] In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession.[169] In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post;[170][171] however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic.[172]

The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the Shi'ite minority—particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal/regionalist opponents (for example in the Hejaz).[173] Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved in violent incidents in the country.[123] However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated.[174]


Main article: House of Saud

King Fahd with US President Ronald Reagan and future US President Donald Trump in 1985. The US and Saudi Arabia supplied money and arms to the anti-Soviet mujahideen fighters in Afghanistan.
The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions,[139] with royal decrees forming the basis of the country's legislation.[175] The prime minister presides over the Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia and Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia. The king has usually been also the prime minister, with two exceptions: Crown Prince Faisal, who was prime minister during the reign of King Saud,[176] and Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman, the current prime minister since 2022.[177] The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allows it to control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement at all levels of government.[178] The number of princes is estimated to be at least 7000, with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of Ibn Saud.[179] The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family,[153] as are the 13 regional governorships.[180]

As many as 500 princes, government ministers, and business people, including Prince Fahd bin Abdullah, were arrested by Saudi Arabian authorities as part of the 2017 Saudi Arabian purge.
The Saudi government[181][182][183] and the royal family[184][185][186] have often been accused of corruption over many years,[187] and this continues into the 21st century.[188] In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them,[44] the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred.[179] The extent of corruption has been described as systemic[189] and endemic,[190] and its existence was acknowledged[191] and defended[192] by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family)[193] in an interview in 2001.[194]

In its Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010, Transparency International gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").[195] Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to increase public transparency and good governance, but nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country; the enforcement of the anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption with impunity. As many as 500 people, including prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businesspeople, were arrested in an anti-corruption campaign in November 2017.[196]


Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh with Bogdan Borusewicz in the Polish Senate, 26 May 2014

Saudi Arabia is unique in giving the ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government.[197] The preferred ulema are of the Salafi movement. The ulema have been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990.[198] In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems[199] as well as a monopoly of authority over socio-religious affairs.[200]

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were underway, and the power of the ulema was in decline.[201] However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.[202] The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support:[115] in particular, they were given greater control over the education system[202] and were allowed to enforce the stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.[115] After his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to reduce the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.[203]

The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,[204] the country's leading religious family.[200] The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th-century founder of Wahhabism which dominates Saudi society.[205] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)[206] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[207] and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.[198] The pact, which persists to this day,[207] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters while upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority[208] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[209] Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,[210] they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.[200]


Main article: Legal system of Saudi Arabia

See also: Crime in Saudi Arabia
Verses from the Quran. The Quran is the official constitution of the country and a primary source of law. Saudi Arabia is unique in enshrining a religious text as a political document.[211]
The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad).[175] Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim states in that Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent, allowing judges to use independent legal reasoning to make a decision. Thus, divergent judgments arise even in apparently identical cases,[212] making predictability of legal interpretation difficult.[213] Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence (fiqh) found in pre-modern texts and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an and hadith.[214][215] In 2021, Saudi Arabia announced judicial reforms to entirely codify its laws and eliminate discrepancies.[216]

Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as regulations rather than laws because they are subordinate to Sharia.[175] Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labour, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant.[217] Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees.[218] Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the king, and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.[219]

Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye.[220] Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya (blood money) by the perpetrator.[221]


Main articles: Regions of Saudi Arabia and Governorates of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 regions[222] (Arabic: مناطق إدارية; manatiq idāriyya, sing. منطقة إدارية; mintaqah idariyya). The regions are further divided into 118 governorates (Arabic: محافظات; muhafazat, sing. محافظة; muhafazah). This number includes the 13 regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities (Arabic: أمانة; amanah) headed by mayors (Arabic: أمين; amin). The governorates are further subdivided into sub-governorates (Arabic: مراكز; marakiz, sing. مركز; markaz).


Tabuk
Bahah —– 
Jawf
Madinah
Makkah
Jizan
Ha'il
NorthernBorders
Asir
Qasim
Riyadh
Najran
Eastern Province



Main article: Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia

The foreign policy of Saudi Arabia is officially focused on cooperation with the oil-exporting Gulf States, the unity of the Arab world, Islamic solidarity, and support for the United Nations and multilateralism. It joined the UN in 1945[41][223] and is a founding member of the Arab League, Gulf Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.[f][224] Saudi Arabia joined the World Trade Organization in 2005 and plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the G20.[41] Although part of the Non-Aligned Movement, Saudi Arabia is generally considered pro-Western.[225]

Since co-founding OPEC in 1960, Saudi Arabia's oil pricing policy has officially aimed to stabilize the world oil market and moderate sharp price movements so as not to jeopardize Western economies.[41][226] In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other Arab nations imposed an oil embargo against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, and other Western nations that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War.[227] The embargo caused an oil crisis with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.[228]

Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies;[229][230][231] the U.S. has been the most influential foreign power in the kingdom since the end of World War II.[232] Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Gulf War, particularly the stationing of American troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally.[233] As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S.; for example, it refused to support or participate in the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[139] Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia remains a key strategic ally of the U.S. and a leading importer of American arms.[234] In 2017, American President Donald Trump and King Salman signed a series of letters of intent for Saudi Arabia to purchase arms from the United States totalling $350 billion over 10 years.[235][236]

Since Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman took power in 2017, Saudi Arabia has pursued closer ties with both China and Russia as a balancing move away from its traditional reliance on the United States. This has involved an increase in both economic and political cooperation, such as elevating Sino-Saudi relations to that of a comprehensive strategic partnership as well as forming an agreement with Russia to reduce oil production among OPEC nations during the Ukraine War.[237]

Saudi Arabia has traditionally sought to preserve the regional status quo by using its financial, diplomatic, and military resources to limit the effects of revolutionary uprisings in neighbouring countries.[238] It has engaged in a proxy conflict with Iran since the 1979 Islamic Revolution, which had called for the overthrow of monarchies and Sunni dominance. The rivalry between Iran and Saudi Arabia can be seen as the geopolitical extension of the wider Sunni-Shia conflict, with both sides being the flagship state for their respective sides. The consequences of the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the Arab Spring (2010–2012) led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise of Iran's influence in the region.[239] These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah,[203] who privately urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake".[240] However, tensions between the rivals have cooled in recent years due to diplomatic dialogue. Despite being allies with The UAE on several organizations, they have been locked in a proxy war over the Yemeni civil war (2014–present) in which the Emiratis have supported secessionists against the pro-Saudi central government.[241]

Major Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict locations

Iran shown in green, KSA shown in orange
Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the Arab–Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah.[242]

In 2017, as part of its nuclear power programme, Saudi Arabia planned to extract uranium domestically, taking a step towards self-sufficiency in producing nuclear fuel.[243] Subsequently, the kingdom has been exploring foreign partnerships for constructing its first civil nuclear reactors, including with the United States, China, Russia, South Korea, and France.[244]

Saudi Arabia has sought to build greater relations with other Asian countries as well, particularly India, Pakistan, South Korea, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Saudi Arabia sees South Korea as a key business partner in multiple core sectors and has signed a mutual defence agreement with Pakistan.[245] Despite having close relations with Pakistan for decades, India has emerged as another key economic partner with Saudi Arabia.[245]


Main article: Saudi Arabia and state-sponsored terrorism

Saudi Arabia has been accused of sponsoring Islamic terrorism.[246][247] According to former Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki in March 2014, Saudi Arabia along with Qatar provided political, financial, and media support to terrorists against the Iraqi government.[248] Similarly, former President of Syria Bashar al-Assad noted in 2015 that the sources of the extreme ideology of the terrorist organization ISIS and other such Salafist extremist groups are the Wahabism that has been supported by the royal family of Saudi Arabia.[249]

Relations with the U.S. became strained following 9/11 terror attacks.[250] American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a jihadist culture.[251] According to former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2010, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide."[252] The Saudi government denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism.[253] In September 2016, the U.S. Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act that would allow relatives of victims of the 11 September attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for its government's alleged role in the attacks.[254] In 2014, Sheikh Abdulaziz bin Abdullah Al-Sheikh, the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia and Chairman of the Council of Senior Scholars, issued a fatwa explicitly prohibiting joining or supporting terrorist organizations such as ISIS and al-Qaeda.[255] According to the U.S. Department of State, "Saudi Arabia plays an important role in working toward a peaceful and prosperous future for the region and is a strong partner in security and counterterrorism efforts and in military, diplomatic, and financial cooperation."[256] A significant Saudi counterterrorism success was the foiling of a 2010 cargo plane bomb plot.[257] In December 2015, Saudi Arabia announced the formation of the Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition, an alliance of Muslim-majority countries aimed at combating terrorism and extremism.[258]

Since 2016 the kingdom has started to back off from exporting Islamic fundamentalism.[259] Several reforms took place including curbing the powers of religious police,[260] and no longer funding the construction of mosques abroad.[261]


Main article: Saudi Arabian Military Forces

See also: List of wars involving Saudi Arabia
M1 Abrams of the Royal Saudi Land ForcesAl-Riyadh-class frigate of the Royal Saudi NavyEurofighter Typhoon of the Royal Saudi Air Force

The Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia are under the Ministry of Defence and consist of the Royal Saudi Land Forces (including the Royal Guard), the Air Force, the Navy, the Air Defence, and the Strategic Missile Force; the Saudi Arabian National Guard, which is under the Ministry of National Guard, is made up of tribal forces loyal to the Saudi royal family and plays a role in both domestic security and foreign defence.[262][263][264] Additionally, the kingdom has several paramilitary forces under the Minister of Interior, including the Saudi Arabian Border Guard, Facilities Security Force, and Coast Guard.[264] The primary special operations and counterterrorism units are the Special Security Force and the Emergency Force under the Presidency of State Security, which combines all counterterrorism and intelligence services and reports directly to the king. As of 2023, there are 127,000 active personnel in the Armed Forces, 130,000 in the National Guard, and 24,500 in the paramilitary security forces.

Saudi Arabia has one of the world's highest military expenditures in both proportional and absolute terms, at approximately US$80.3 billion (roughly 7% of GDP) according to a 2024 estimate by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI); this places the country seventh in the world, behind the United States, China, Russia, Germany, India, and the United Kingdom. Spending on defence and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US$78.4 billion as of 2019.[265] A 2023 estimate by SIPRI ranked Saudi Arabia fourth in the world in per capita military spending. The kingdom was the world's second largest arms importer from 2019 to 2023.[266][267] According to the BICC, Saudi Arabia is the 28th most militarized country in the world and possesses the second-best military equipment qualitatively in the region, after Israel.[268] Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations.[269]

Saudi Arabia has security relationships with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, which provide training and weapons;[270] the kingdom is the largest recipient of U.S. arms in the world, accounting for 12 percent of all U.S. arms exports in 2024.[271] Saudi Arabia has a long-standing military relationship with Pakistan and is speculated to have secretly funded the latter's atomic bomb programme with the intention of purchasing its atomic weapons;[272][273] in September 2025, both countries entered into a mutual defence pact. Since 2018, Saudi Arabia has repeatedly expressed willingness to acquire or develop nuclear weapons in the event that its chief regional rival, Iran, develops one.[274][275]

In March 2015, Saudi Arabia mobilized 150,000 troops and 100 fighter jets to support its intervention in the civil war in neighbouring Yemen.[276][277] By early 2016, Saudi ground forces and their coalition allies captured Aden and parts of southwest Yemen, though the Houthis continued to control northern Yemen and the capital city Sanaa. From there the Houthis launched successful attacks across the border into Saudi Arabia.[278] The Saudi military has also carried out an aerial bombing campaign and a naval blockade aimed at stopping weapons shipments to the Houthis.[279][280] As of 2024, Saudi Arabia had 2,500 troops actively participating in the conflict in Yemen.[281]


Main article: Human rights in Saudi Arabia

See also: Capital punishment in Saudi Arabia

The Saudi government, which mandates Muslim and non-Muslim observance of Sharia law under the absolute rule of the House of Saud, has been denounced by international organizations and governments for violating human rights.[282] The authoritarian regime is consistently ranked among the "worst of the worst" in Freedom House's annual survey of political and civil rights.[283] According to Amnesty International, security forces torture and ill-treat detainees to extract confessions to be used as evidence against them.[284] Saudi Arabia abstained from the UN vote adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, saying it contradicted Sharia.[285] Mass executions, such as those carried out in 2016,[286] 2019,[287] 2022,[288] and 2025[289] have been condemned by international rights groups.

Since 2001, Saudi Arabia has engaged in internet censorship. Most censorship falls into two categories: "immoral" content (mostly pornographic and LGBT-supportive sites along with sites promoting any religion other than Sunni Islam) and blacklisted political content critical of the regime, as dictated by Saudi Arabia's Ministry of Media.[290][291][292]
Deera Square, central Riyadh. It is a former site of public beheadings.[293]

Saudi Arabian law does not recognize sexual orientations or religious freedom, and the public practice of non-Muslim religions is actively prohibited.[294] The justice system regularly engages in capital punishment, which has included public executions by decapitation.[295][296] In line with Sharia in the Saudi justice system, the death penalty can theoretically be imposed for a range of offences,[297] including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy,[298] adultery,[299] and witchcraft.[300] It can be carried out by beheading with a sword,[298] stoning or by firing squad,[299] followed by crucifixion (exposure of the body after execution).[300] In 2022, the Saudi Crown Prince stated that capital punishments will be removed "except for one category mentioned in the Quran", namely homicide, under which certain conditions must be applied.[288] In April 2020, Saudi Supreme Court issued a directive to eliminate the punishment of flogging from the court system, being replaced by imprisonment or fines.[301][302]

Historically, Saudi women have faced discrimination in many aspects of their lives and were effectively treated as legal minors under the male guardianship system.[303] The treatment of women has been referred to as "sex segregation"[304][305] and "gender apartheid".[306][307] Since the 2000s, the kingdom has made several attempts to improve the status of women in order to elevate their global standing. As of June 2023, the kingdom has reportedly reversed its ban on women "becoming lawyers, engineers, or geologists" and established "aggressive affirmative action programmes", doubling the female labour force participation rate. It has added "its first female newspaper editors, diplomats, TV anchors and public prosecutors", with a female head of the Saudi stock exchange and member on the board of Saudi Aramco.[308] In June 2018, the Saudi government issued a law allowing women to drive.[309] However, an investigation by The Guardian newspaper in 2025 found that the Dar al-Reaya, officially "care homes", continued to be effectively "jails" for women whose families wished to institutionalize them for disobedience, extramarital sexual relations or being absent from home. Some women are sent to Dar al-Reaya to protect a family's reputation after a woman is sexually abused by a brother or father. Treatment was reported to be "hellish": with solitary confinement, flogging, and no family contact.[310]

Saudi Arabia is a notable destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of slave labour and sexual exploitation.[311] Migrants from Asia and Africa are employed in the country's construction, hospitality, and domestic work sectors under the kafala system, which human rights groups say is linked to slavery.[312][313]


Main article: Economy of Saudi Arabia

With gross domestic product (GDP) at over $1.1 trillion nominally, and more than $2.3 trillion by purchasing power parity (PPP), Saudi Arabia has the second largest economy in the Middle East (after Turkey), the largest in the Arab world, and the 18th largest in the world.[314] It has the world's second-largest proven reserves of petroleum, of which it is third largest producer and the largest exporter;[315][316] the country also has the sixth-largest proven natural gas reserves.[33] Saudi Arabia is considered an "energy superpower,"[317][318] having the third highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$34.4 trillion in 2016.[319]

Saudi Arabia has a command economy based largely on petroleum; the oil industry accounts for roughly 63%[320] of budget revenue, 67%[321] of export earnings, and 45% of nominal GDP compared with 40% from the private sector. It is strongly dependent on foreign workers, with about 80% of private sector employees being non-Saudi.[322][323] Challenges to the economy include halting or reversing the decline in per-capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, and diminishing corruption and inequality.[324]

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves". Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about 100 billion barrels (1.6×1010 m3) between 1987 and 1988.[325] Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak oil).[326]

Map of oil and gas pipelines in the Middle-East
From 2003 to 2013, "several key services" were privatized—municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications—and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities."[327] In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of the World Trade Organization. Negotiations to join had focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and in 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission/distribution over time. The government has also made an attempt at "Saudizing" the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi nationals with limited success.[328]

The hajj is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, the holiest city for Muslims.[329] 
In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi has a significant gold mining sector in the Mahd adh Dhahab region and significant other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on vegetables, fruits, dates etc. and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annual hajj pilgrims.[324] Saudi Arabia has had five-year "Development Plans" since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City) to diversify the economy and provide jobs.

Saudi Arabia is increasingly activating its ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China in addition to oil transport. To this end, ports such as Jeddah Islamic Port or King Abdullah Economic City are being rapidly expanded, and investments are being made in logistics. The country is historically and currently part of the Maritime Silk Road.[330][331][332][333]

Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any.[334] The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.[335][336][337] Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis may be considered poor.[338] Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous[339] because of the risk of being arrested.

The unexpected impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the economy, along with Saudi Arabia's poor human rights records, laid unforeseen challenges before the development plans of the kingdom, where some of the programmes under 'Vision 2030' were also expected to be affected.[340] In May 2020, the Finance Minister of Saudi Arabia admitted that the country's economy was facing a severe economical crisis for the first time in decades, because of the pandemic as well as declining global oil markets.

In July 2024 Saudi Arabia's Renewable Energy Localisation Company (RELC) has formed three joint ventures with Chinese companies to advance the kingdom's clean energy infrastructure. As part of Saudi Arabia's 2030 targets, the Public Investment Fund is actively promoting the localization of renewable energy components. RELC, a division of the sovereign fund, facilitates partnerships between global manufacturers and Saudi private sector firms to strengthen local supply chains. These initiatives aim to localize up to 75% of the components used in Saudi Arabia's renewable projects by 2030, positioning the country as a major global exporter of renewable technologies.[341]


Main article: Agriculture in Saudi Arabia


Saudi Arabia's predominantly arid environment, poor soil, and traditional nomadic lifestyle have long favoured pastoralism, particularly of camels, sheep, and goats; agricultural production has historically been localized and oriented towards basic subsistence.[342] Less than two percent of the total land area is used for crops, with agriculture constituting only a fraction of GDP (2.5 percent) and employing a similar proportion of the workforce.[343][342]

Initial attempts to develop dairy farming on a commercial scale occurred in the Al Kharj District south of Riyadh during the 1950s.[344] Serious large-scale agricultural development began in the 1970s,[345] particularly with wheat,[346] with the government launching an extensive programme to promote modern farming technology; establish rural roads, irrigation networks and storage and export facilities; and encourage agricultural research and training institutions. The kingdom has continued prioritizing domestic food production through subsidies and generous incentives.[342]

Owing to these efforts, there has been substantial growth in the production of all basic foods: Although it still imports the bulk of its food needs, Saudi Arabia is self-sufficient in several commodities, particularly wheat, meat, milk, and eggs. The country exports dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Dates, which are indigenous to Saudi Arabia and a traditional staple of its diet, are now mainly grown for global humanitarian aid; the kingdom is the world's second largest producer after Egypt, producing 1.6 million tonnes as of 2022. Another indigenous crop, the olive, is also heavily cultivated: The Al Jouf region has millions of olive trees—including the world's largest olive farm at 7,713 hectares[347]—and the number is expected to increase to 20 million trees.[348] Saudi farmers also grow substantial amounts of other grains such as barley, sorghum, and millet.

Saudi Arabia has some of the most modern and largest dairy farms in the Middle East; milk production boasts a productive annual rate of 6,800 litres (1,800 US gallons) per cow, one of the highest in the world. Saudi dairy company Almarai is the largest vertically integrated dairy company in the Middle East,[349] and the largest dairy firm in the world by volume;[350] it operates the world's largest dairy farm at Al Safi.[351]

Following an end to domestic wheat production in 2016 to preserve water,[352] Saudi Arabia encouraged small famers to produce wheat in 2019 through a domestic production programme established under the Saudi Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture (MEWA).[353] In 2025, wheat production is forecast to more than double the five-year average.[354]

Consuming nonrenewable groundwater resulted in the loss of an estimated four-fifths of the total groundwater reserves by 2012.[355] About half the arable land is cultivated through rain-fed dry farming (mostly in Asir), two-fifths through the planting of local tree crops (namely dates and olives), and the remainder by irrigation, mostly by underground water.

As part of the Saudi Green Initiative, which seeks to restore vegetation cover and ecological sustainability, the kingdom aims to plant 100 million mangroves; as of 2024, the National Centre for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification announced it had planted 13 million seedlings.[356]


Main articles: Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia and Irrigation in Saudi Arabia

Al-Musk Lake close to Jeddah
One of the main challenges for Saudi Arabia is water scarcity. Substantial investments have been undertaken in seawater desalination, water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment. Today about 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater, and 10% from surface water in the mountainous southwest of the country.[357] Saudi Arabia is suffering from a major depletion of the water in its underground aquifers and a resultant break down and disintegration of its agriculture as a consequence.[358][359] As a result of the catastrophe, Saudi Arabia has bought agricultural land in the United States,[360][361] Argentina,[362] and Africa.[363][364][365][366] Saudi Arabia ranked as a major buyer of agricultural land in foreign countries.[367][368]

Saudi Arabia was the third most water stressed country in the world in 2022.[369]
According to the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF, the latest reliable source on access to water and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is the 2004 census. It indicates that 97% of the population had access to an improved source of drinking water and 99% had access to improved sanitation. For 2015, the JMP estimates that access to sanitation increased to 100%. Sanitation was primarily through on-site solutions, and about 40% of the population was connected to sewers.[370] In 2015, 886,000 people lacked access to "improved" water.[371][372]


Main article: Tourism in Saudi Arabia


In 2019, Saudi Arabia adopted a general tourism travel visa to allow non-Muslims to visit.[373] Although most tourism largely involves religious pilgrimages, there is growth in the leisure tourism sector. According to the World Bank, approximately 14.3 million people visited Saudi Arabia in 2012, making it the world's 19th-most-visited country.[374] Tourism is an important component of the Saudi Vision 2030, and according to a report conducted by BMI Research in 2018 both religious and non-religious tourism have significant potential for expansion.[375]

The kingdom offers an electronic visa for foreign visitors to attend sports events and concerts.[376] In 2019, the kingdom announced its plans to open visa applications for visitors, where people from about 50 countries would be able to get tourist visas to Saudi.[377] In 2020 it was announced that holders of a US, UK or Schengen visa are eligible for a Saudi electronic visa upon arrival.[378]


Main articles: Saudi Arabian people and Demographics of Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia population density (people per km2)
Saudi Arabia's reported population is 32,175,224 as of 2022,[379] making it the fourth most populous country in the Arab world.[380] Close to 42% of its inhabitants are immigrants,[381] mostly from the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa.[382]

The Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950, when it was estimated at 3 million.[383] For much of the 20th century, the country had one of the highest population growth rates in the world, at around 3% annually;[384] it continues to grow at a rate of 1.62% per year,[381] slightly higher than the rest of the Middle East and North Africa. Consequently, the Saudi people are quite young by global standards, with over half the population under 25 years old.[385]

Ethnically, 90% of citizens are Arab with 10% holding Afro-Arab ancestry.[386] Most Saudis are concentrated in the southwest; Hejaz, which is the most populated region,[387] is home to one-third of the population, followed by neighbouring Najd (28%) and the Eastern Province (15%).[388] As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but in the last half of the 20th century, the kingdom has urbanized rapidly: as of 2023, about 85% of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas—specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam.[389][390] As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at 300000.[391] Slavery was officially abolished in 1962.[392][393]




   Largest cities or towns in Saudi ArabiaData.gov.sa (2013/2014/2016)
 
Rank
Name
Regions
 Pop.
Rank
Name
Regions
 Pop.


1RiyadhRiyadh[394] 6,506,70011QatifEastern[395] 559,300


2JeddahMecca[396] 3,976,40012Khamis MushaitAsir[397] 549,000

3MeccaMecca[396] 1,919,90013Ha'ilHa'il[398] 441,900

4MedinaMedina[399] 1,271,80014Hafar al-BatinEastern[395] 416,800

5HofufEastern[395] 1,136,90015JubailEastern[395] 411,700

6Ta'ifMecca[396] 1,109,80016KharjRiyadh[400] 404,100

7DammamEastern[395] 975,80017AbhaAsir[397] 392,500

8BuraidahAl-Qassim[401] 658,60018NajranNajran[402] 352,900

9KhobarEastern[395] 626,20019YanbuAl Madinah[399] 320,800

10TabukTabuk[403] 609,00020Al QunfudhahMecca[396] 304,400




The official language is Arabic.[9][5] There are four main regional dialect groups spoken by Saudis: Najdi (about 14.6 million speakers[404]), Hejazi (about 10.3 million speakers[405]), Gulf (about 0.96 million speakers[406]), and Southern Hejaz-Tihama[407] dialects. Faifi is spoken by about 50000. The Mehri language is also spoken by around 20000 Mehri citizens.[408] Saudi Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community, amounting to around 100000 speakers. The large expatriate communities have brought their languages as well, the most numerous of which, according to 2018 data, are Bengali (~1 500000), Tagalog (~900000), Punjabi (~800000), Urdu (~740000), Egyptian Arabic (~600000), Rohingya, North Levantine Arabic (both ~500000)[409] and Malayalam.[410]


Main article: Religion in Saudi Arabia

Quba Mosque in Medina, Hejaz is considered to be one of the oldest mosques, dating to the lifetime of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[g]


Religion in Saudi Arabia (ARDA 2020 est.)[412]

Sunni (80.1%)
Shia (8.89%)
Other Muslim (0.45%)
Catholic (6.52%)
Other Christian (0.46%)
Hinduism (2.03%)
Buddhism (0.33%)
None (0.71%)
Other (0.54%)



	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	
	



Virtually all Saudi inhabitants are Muslim;[413][414][415] as by law Saudi citizens are Muslim. Estimates of the Sunni population range between 85% and 90%, with the remaining 10 to 15% being Shia Muslim,[416][417][418][419] practicing either Twelver Shi'ism or Sulaymani Ismailism. Shia Muslims in Saudi Arabia are largely found in the Eastern Province, particularly in Qatif and Al–Ahsa.[420] The official and dominant form of Sunni Islam is Salafism, commonly known as Wahhabism,[421][422][h] which was founded in the Arabian Peninsula by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the 18th century. Other denominations, including Shia Islam, are systematically suppressed by the state apparatus.[423] Atheism and apostasy are punishable by death or by life imprisonment.

Christianity is the second largest religion in Saudi Arabia, estimated at around 2.1 million, of whom the vast majority are foreign workers.[424] Saudi Arabia allows Christians to enter the country as temporary foreign workers but does not allow them to practice their faith openly. There are officially no Saudi citizens who are Christians,[425] as Saudi Arabia forbids religious conversion from Islam (apostasy) and punishes it by death.[426] There are over 708,000 Hindus in Saudi Arabia, comprising the third largest religion; like other minority faiths in the country, with all of them coming from South Asia.[427] There may be a significant fraction of atheists and agnostics,[428][429] although they are officially designated as "terrorists".[430] In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Saudi Arabia a Country of Particular Concern, denoting systematic, ongoing, and egregious violations of religious freedom.[431]

Najran was once home to sizeable historical local Christian and Jewish communities.[432] Before the founding of Israel, Najran had over 7,000 Jews,[433][432] predominantly of Yemenite Jewish background.[432] Following the establishment of Israel and the 1948 Arab–Israeli war, Jews began leaving for Israel via Yemen.[432] By the 1970s, there were no Jews left in the country.


Main article: Education in Saudi Arabia

Laboratory buildings at KAUST
Education is free at all levels, although higher education is restricted to citizens only.[434] The school system is composed of elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools. Classes are segregated by sex. At the secondary level, students are able to choose from three types of schools: general education, vocational or technical, and religious.[435] The rate of literacy is 99% among males and 96% among females in 2020.[436][437] Youth literacy rose to approximately 99.5% for both sexes.[438][439]

The entrance gate of King Saud University, the kingdom's oldest university, founded in 1957

Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000. Institutions of higher education include King Saud University at Riyadh, the Islamic University at Medina, and the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah. Princess Norah University is the largest women's university in the world. King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, known as KAUST, is the first mixed-gender university campus in Saudi Arabia and was founded in 2009. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula in sciences and technology, military studies, religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in particular, abound. Women typically receive college instruction in segregated institutions.[139]
UIS literacy rate Saudi Arabia population, 15 plus, 1990–2015
The Academic Ranking of World Universities, known as Shanghai Ranking, ranked five Saudi institutions among its 2022 list of the 500 top universities in the world.[440] The QS World University Rankings lists 14 Saudi universities among the 2022 world's top universities and 23 universities among the top 100 in the Arab world.[441] The 2022 list of U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking ranked King Abdulaziz University among the top 50 universities in the world and KAUST among the top 100 universities in the world.[442]

In 2018, Saudi Arabia ranked 28th worldwide in terms of high-quality research output according to the scientific journal Nature.[443] Saudi Arabia spends 9% of its gross domestic product on education, compared with the global average of 5%.[444] Saudi Arabia was ranked 46th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025, up from 68th in 2019.[445][446][447][448]

The Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging Islamic terrorism, leading to reform efforts.[449][450] Following the 9/11 attacks, the government aimed to tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education for a modern economy, by slowly modernizing the education system through the "Tatweer" reform programme.[449] The Tatweer programme is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyse and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally based training.[451][452]

In 2021, the Washington Post reported on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs considered antisemitic and sexist. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment of homosexuality or same-sex relations have been deleted, as well as the expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Antisemitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for the Anti-Defamation League, said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians, and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down. The U.S. State Department expressed in an e-mail that it welcomed the changes. The Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs supports a training programme for Saudi teachers.[453]


Main articles: Health in Saudi Arabia and Health care in Saudi Arabia

Saudi twins receiving care from doctors at King Abdulaziz Medical City in Riyadh

Saudi Arabia has a national health care system in which the government provides free health care services through government agencies. Saudi Arabia has been ranked among the 26 best countries in providing high quality healthcare.[454] The Ministry of Health is the major government agency entrusted with the provision of preventive, curative, and rehabilitative health care. The ministry's origins can be traced to 1925, when several regional health departments were established, with the first in Makkah. The various healthcare institutions were merged to become a ministerial body in 1950.[455] The Health Ministry created a friendly competition between each of the districts and between different medical services and hospitals. This idea resulted in the creation of the "Ada'a" project launched in 2016. The new system is a nationwide performance indicator, for services and hospitals. Waiting times and other major measurements improved dramatically across the kingdom.[456]

Historical development of life expectancy in Saudi Arabia

A new strategy has been developed by the ministry, known as Diet and Physical Activity Strategy or DPAS for short,[457] to address bad lifestyle choices. The ministry advised that there should be a tax increase on unhealthy food, drink, and cigarettes. This additional tax could be used to improve healthcare offerings. The tax was implemented in 2017.[458] As part of the same strategy, calorie labels were added in 2019 to some food and drink products. Ingredients were also listed as an aim to reduce obesity and inform citizens with health issues to manage their diet.[459] As part of the ongoing focus on tackling obesity, women-only gyms were allowed to open in 2017. Sports offered in each of these gyms include bodybuilding, running and swimming to maintain higher standards of health.[460][461]

Smoking in all age groups is widespread. Before 2010, Saudi Arabia had no policies banning or restricting smoking.

The MOH has been awarded "Healthy City" certificates by the World Health Organization (WHO) for the cities of Unayzah and Riyadh Al Khabra as 4th and 5th Healthy Cities in Saudi Arabia.[462]
The WHO had earlier classified three Saudi Arabian cities, Ad Diriyah, Jalajil, and Al-Jamoom as "Healthy city", as part of the WHO Healthy Cities Programme. Recently Al-Baha has also been classified as a healthy city to join the list of global healthy cities approved by the World Health Organization.[463]

In May 2019, the then Saudi Minister of Health Tawfiq bin Fawzan AlRabiah received a global award on behalf of the Kingdom for combating smoking through social awareness, treatment, and application of regulations.[464] The award was presented as part of the 72nd session of the World Health Assembly, held in Geneva in May 2019. After becoming one of the first nations to ratify the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2005, it plans to reduce tobacco use from 12.7% in 2017, to 5% in 2030.[464]

Saudi Arabia has a life expectancy of 78 years (77 for males and 80 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2022 from the World Bank.[465] Infant mortality in 2022 was 6 per 1000 (6 for males and 5 for females).[465] In 2022, 71.8% of the adult population was overweight and 40.6% was obese.[466]


See also: Foreign workers in Saudi Arabia, Migrant workers in the Gulf region, and Kafala system

The Central Department of Statistics & Information estimated the foreign population at the end of 2014 at 33% (10.1 million).[467] The CIA Factbook estimated that as of 2013[update] foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21% of the population.[9] Other sources report differing estimates.[468] Indian: 1.5 million, Pakistani: 1.3 million,[469] Egyptian: 900000, Yemeni: 800000, Bangladeshi: 400000, Filipino: 500000, Jordanian/Palestinian: 260000, Indonesian: 250000, Sri Lankan: 350000, Sudanese: 250000, Syrian: 100000 and Turkish: 80000.[470]

According to The Guardian, as of 2013[update] there were more than half a million foreign-born domestic workers. Most have backgrounds in poverty and come from Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.[471] To go to work in Saudi Arabia, they must often pay large sums to recruitment agencies in their home countries. The agencies then handle the necessary legal paperwork.[472]

As the Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for "Saudization" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country.[473] Saudi Arabia expelled 800000 Yemenis in 1990 and 1991[474] and has built a Saudi–Yemen barrier against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.[475] In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticized Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue.[476]

Over 500000 undocumented migrant workers—mostly from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen—have been detained and deported since 2013.[477] An investigation led by The Sunday Telegraph, exposed the condition of African migrants who were detained in Saudi Arabia allegedly for containing COVID-19 in the kingdom. They were beaten, tortured, and electrocuted. Many of the migrants died due to heatstroke or by attempting suicide, after being severely beaten and tortured. The migrants lack proper living conditions, provision of food and water.[478]

Foreigners cannot apply for permanent residency, though a specialized Premium Residency visa became available in 2019.[479] Only Muslims can naturalize as Saudi citizens.[480] Foreigners who have resided in the kingdom and hold degrees in various scientific fields may apply for Saudi citizenship,[481][482] and exception made for Palestinians who are excluded unless married to a male Saudi national, because of Arab League instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Saudi Arabia is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention.[483]


Main article: Culture of Saudi Arabia

The Mosque of the Prophet in Medina containing the tomb of Muhammad
Saudi Arabia has millennia-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from Arab civilization. Some of the major factors that influence the culture are Islamic heritage and Arab traditions as well as its historical role as an ancient trade centre.[484] The Kingdom also has a very family-oriented culture[485] with an emphasis on preserving family traditions and kinship ties.[486]


Religion is a core aspect of everyday life in Saudi Arabia; it plays a dominant role in the country's governance and legal system, and deeply influences culture and daily life, although the power of the religious establishment has been significantly eroded in the 2010s.[487] The Hejaz region, where the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina are located, is the destination of the Ḥajj pilgrimage, and often deemed to be the cradle of Islam.[488][i]

Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia. There is no law that requires all citizens to be Muslim, but non-Muslims and many foreign and Saudi Muslims whose beliefs are deemed not to conform with the government's interpretation of Islam must practice their religion in private and are vulnerable to discrimination, harassment, detention, and, for foreigners, deportation.[499] Neither Saudi citizens nor guest workers have the right of freedom of religion.[500] The dominant form of Islam in the kingdom—Wahhabism—arose in the central region of Najd, in the 18th century. Proponents call the movement "Salafism",[422] and believe that its teachings purify the practice of Islam of innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of Muhammad and his companions.[501] The Saudi government has often been viewed as an active oppressor of Shia Muslims because of the funding of the Wahhabi ideology which denounces the Shia faith.[502][503] Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: "The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally 'God help the Shia'. More than a billion Sunnis have simply had enough of them."[504]

Supplicating pilgrim at Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām (The Sacred Mosque) in Mecca. The Kaaba (the holiest site of Islam) is the cubic building in front of the pilgrim.

Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that have "religious police" (known as Haia or Mutaween), who patrol the streets "enjoining good and forbidding wrong" by enforcing dress codes, strict separation of men and women, attendance at prayer (salat) five times each day, the ban on alcohol, and other aspects of Sharia. However, since 2016 the power of religious police was curbed, which barred them from pursuing, questioning, requesting identification or arresting suspects.[505][260] In the privacy of homes, behaviour can be far looser, and reports from WikiLeaks indicate that low ranked members of the ruling Saudi Royal family indulge in parties with alcohol, drugs, and prostitutes.[506]


See also: Women's rights in Saudi Arabia and Women's education in Saudi Arabia

Throughout history, women did not have equal rights to men in the kingdom; the U.S. State Department considers the Saudi Arabian government's discrimination against women a "significant problem" and notes that women have few political rights because of the government's discriminatory policies.[507] However, since Mohammed bin Salman was appointed Crown Prince in 2017, a series of social reforms have been witnessed regarding women's rights.

Under previous Saudi law, all females were required to have a male guardian (wali), typically a father, brother, husband, or uncle (mahram). In 2019, this law was partially amended to exclude women over 21 years old from the requirement of a male guardian.[508] The amendment also granted women rights in relation to the guardianship of minor children.[508][509] Previously, girls and women were forbidden from travelling, conducting official business, or undergoing certain medical procedures without permission from their male guardians.[510] In 2019, Saudi Arabia allowed women to travel abroad, register for divorce or marriage, and apply for official documents without the permission of a male guardian.

In 2006, Wajeha al-Huwaider, a leading Saudi feminist and journalist said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone."[511] Following this, Saudi Arabia implemented the anti-domestic violence law in 2014.[512] Furthermore, between 2017 and 2020, the country addressed issues of mobility, sexual harassment, pensions, and employment-discrimination protections.[513][514][515] al-Huwaider and other female activists have applauded the general direction in which the country was headed.[516]

Princess Reema bint Bandar, the Saudi Ambassador to the United States of America, delivering an address at an event honouring the 75th anniversary of Saudi-US relations

Women face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women in family and inheritance law.[507] Polygamy is permitted for men,[517] and men have a unilateral right to divorce their wives (talaq) without needing any legal justification.[518] Historically, a woman could only obtain a divorce with the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her;[519] however, in 2022, women were granted the right to initiate divorce without the approval of a legal guardian under the new Personal Status Law.[520] With regard to inheritance law, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be left to the Qur'anic heirs[521] and generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs.[521]


See also: Mecca, Medina, Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia, Tourism in Saudi Arabia, and Saudi Heritage Preservation Society
The 3000-year-old ancient historical city of Dumat al-Jandal in Al Jawf Province

Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to 'shirk' (idolatry), and the most significant historic Muslim sites (in Mecca and Medina) are located in the western Saudi region of the Hejaz.[488] As a consequence, under Saudi rule an estimated 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, have been demolished for religious reasons.[522] Critics claim that over the last 50 years, 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost,[523] leaving fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.[524] Demolished structures include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter Fatima, and other mosques founded by Abu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first caliph), Umar (the second caliph), Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth caliph), and Salman al-Farsi (another of Muhammad's companions).[525] Other historic buildings that have been destroyed include the house of Khadijah, the wife of Muhammad, the house of Abu Bakr, now the site of the local Hilton hotel; the house of Ali-Oraid, the grandson of Muhammad, and the Mosque of Abu-Qubais, now the location of the King's palace in Mecca.[526]The Mosque of the Prophet in Medina containing the tomb of MuhammadEight cultural sites in Saudi Arabia are designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih);[527] the Turaif district in Diriyah;[528] Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Mecca;[529] Al-Ahsa Oasis;[530] Rock Art in the Hail Region;[531] Ḥimā Cultural Area;[532] 'Uruq Bani Ma'arid;[533] and Qaryat al-Faw. Ten other sites submitted requests for recognition to UNESCO in 2015.[534] There are six elements inscribed on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity list:[535] Al-Qatt Al-Asiri, female traditional interior wall decoration in Asir; Almezmar, drumming and dancing with sticks; Falconry, a living human heritage; Arabic coffee, a symbol of generosity; Majlis, a cultural and social space; Alardah Alnajdiyah, dance, drumming and poetry in Saudi Arabia.

In June 2014, the Council of Ministers approved a law that gives the Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage the means to protect Saudi Arabia's ancient relics and historic sites. Within the framework of the 2016 National Transformation Programme, also known as Saudi Vision 2030, the kingdom allocated 900 million euros to preserve its historical and cultural heritage.[536] Saudi Arabia also participates in the International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas, created in March 2017, with a contribution of 18.5 million euros.[537]

In 2017, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman promised to return Saudi Arabia to the "moderate Islam" of the era before the 1979 Iranian revolution.[538] A new centre, the King Salman Complex for the Prophet's Hadith, was established that year to monitor interpretations of Muhammad's hadiths to prevent them being used to justifying terrorism.[539]

In March 2018, the Crown Prince met the Archbishop of Canterbury during a visit to the UK, pledging to promote interfaith dialogue. In Riyadh the following month King Salman met the head of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue.[540] In July 2019, UNESCO signed a letter with the Saudi Minister of Culture in which Saudi Arabia contributed US$25 million to UNESCO for the preservation of heritage.[541]

On November 5, 2024, archeologists published the news of an ancient city discovered in the Saudi oasis of Khaybar. The city named al-Natah, that dates back some 4,000 years, was inhabited during the Bronze Age around 2,400 BCE, and had about 500 houses. Not far, a cluster of graves was found, within them metal weapons.[542]


Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear a white ankle-length garment woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a keffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by an agal) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of a finer cotton, also held in place by an agal) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht) over the top. In public, women are required to wear a black abaya or other black clothing that covers everything under the neck with the exception of their hands and feet, although most women cover their head in respect of their religion. This requirement applies to non-Muslim women too and failure to abide can result in police action, particularly in more conservative areas of the country. Women's clothes are often decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques.[543]


Main articles: Saudi Arabian art, Cinema of Saudi Arabia, Music of Saudi Arabia, and Theatre in Saudi Arabia

King Abdullah practising falconry, a traditional pursuit in the country

During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the kingdom although they were seen as contrary to Wahhabi norms.[544] During the Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theatres. However, with King Abdullah and King Salman's reforms, cinemas re-opened,[545] including one in KAUST.

From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated by geometric, floral, and abstract designs and by calligraphy. With the advent of the oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the rabābah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). The national dance is a native sword dance known as ardah. Originating from Najd, it involves lines or circles of men and singing poetry.[546] Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is popular.[139]

Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several Saudi novelists and poets have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world—albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These include Ghazi Algosaibi, Mansour al-Nogaidan, Abdelrahman Munif, Turki al-Hamad, and Rajaa al-Sanea.[547][548][549] In 2016, the General Entertainment Authority (GEA) was formed to oversee the expansion of the Saudi entertainment sector.[550]
The first concerts in Riyadh for 25 years took place the following year.[551] Other events since the GEA's creation have included comedy shows, professional wrestling events, and monster truck rallies.[552] In 2018 the first public cinema opened after a ban of 35 years, with plans to have more than 2000 screens running by 2030.[553]

Developments in the arts in 2018 included Saudi Arabia's debut appearances at the Cannes Film Festival and the Venice Biennale.[554]


Main articles: Mass media in Saudi Arabia and Television in Saudi Arabia

Saad Khader (left) and Mohammad Al-Ali (right) in 1979

Television was introduced in Saudi Arabia in 1954. Saudi Arabia is a major market for pan-Arab satellite and pay-TV. It controls the largest share of the pan-Arab broadcasting market; among the major Saudi-owned broadcasting companies are the Middle East Broadcasting Centre, Rotana, and the Saudi Broadcasting Authority.[555] The Saudi government closely monitors media and restricts it under official state law. Changes have been made to lessen these restrictions; however, some government-led efforts to control information have also drawn international attention. As of 2022, Reporters Without Borders rates the kingdom's press a "very serious" situation.[556]

Most of the early newspapers in the Persian Gulf region were established in Saudi Arabia.[557] The first newspaper founded in the country and in the Persian Gulf area is Al Fallah, which was launched in 1920,[557] and the first English-language newspaper is Arab News, which was launched in 1975.[558] All of the newspapers published in Saudi Arabia are privately owned.[559]

According to World Bank, as of 2020, 98% of the population of Saudi Arabia are internet users which puts it in the 8th rank among countries with the highest percentage of internet users.[560] Saudi Arabia has one of the fastest 5G internet speeds in the world.[561][562] The kingdom is the 27th largest market for e-commerce with a revenue of US$8 billion in 2021.[563]


Main articles: Saudi Arabian cuisine and Arab cuisine

Arabic coffee is a traditional beverage in Arabian cuisine.

Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula and the wider Arab world, and has influenced and been influenced by Turkish, Indian, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not allowed, and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. Kebabs and falafel are popular, as is shawarma, a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. Kabsa, a rice dish with lamb, chicken, fish, or shrimp, is among the national dishes as is mandi. Flat, unleavened taboon bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates, fresh fruit, yoghurt, and hummus. Coffee, served in the Arabic style, is the traditional beverage, but tea and various fruit juices are popular as well.[139] The earliest substantiated evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree is from the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of Arabia.


Main article: Sport in Saudi Arabia

See also: Saudi Arabia at the Olympics
King Fahd International Stadium in Riyadh.
Football is the national sport in Saudi Arabia. The Saudi Arabia national football team is among Asia's strongest, having reached a joint record six AFC Asian Cup finals, winning three of those finals (1984, 1988, and 1996) and having qualified for the World Cup four consecutive times ever since debuting at the 1994 tournament. In the 1994 FIFA World Cup under the leadership of Jorge Solari, Saudi Arabia beat both Belgium and Morocco in the group stage before failing to defeat Sweden in the round of 16. During the 1992 FIFA Confederations Cup, which was played in Saudi Arabia, the country reached the final, losing 1–3 to Argentina. Since 2023, Saudi Arabia's Public Investment Fund has brought many elite footballers to the country's league, such as Cristiano Ronaldo, Roberto Firmino, Neymar, Sadio Mané, Jordan Henderson and Kalidou Koulibaly. Even domestic competitions from Spain and Italy have been held in Saudi Arabia during the 2020s. In December 2024, Saudi Arabia was confirmed as host of the 2034 FIFA World Cup.[564] Developments of stadiums to be used for the event are ongoing. There are reportedly 11 new stadiums being built and airports are scheduled to be expanded to accommodate the expected influx of passengers.[565]

Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing, and basketball (which is played by both men and women) are also popular with the Saudi Arabian national basketball team winning bronze at the 1999 Asian Championship.[566][567][568] More traditional sports such as horse racing and camel racing are also popular. The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport's most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. Falconry is another traditional pursuit.[139]

Sarah Attar competing at the 2012 Summer Olympics as one of the first two females representing Saudi Arabia
Women's sport is controversial because of the suppression of female participation in sport by conservative Islamic religious authorities,[569] however the restrictions have eased.[570][571][572] Until 2018 women were not permitted in sport stadiums. Segregated seating, allowing women to enter, has been developed in three stadiums across major cities.[573] Since 2020, the progress of women's integration into the Saudi sport scene began to develop rapidly.[574][575] 25 Saudi sport federations established a national women's team,[576] including a national football and basketball team. In November 2020, the Saudi Arabian Football Federation announced the launch of the first nationwide Saudi women's premier league.[577]

In its vision for modernization, the nation has introduced many international sporting events, bringing sports stars to the kingdom. However, in August 2019, the kingdom's strategy received criticism for appearing as a method of sportswashing soon after Saudi's US-based 2018 lobbying campaign foreign registration documentations got published online. The documents showed Saudi Arabia as allegedly implementing a sportswashing strategy, including meetings and official calls with authorities of associations like Major League Soccer, World Wrestling Entertainment, and the National Basketball Association.[578]



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↑ The Shahādah (Statement of faith) is sometimes translated into English as 'There is no god but Allah', using the romanization of the Arabic word Allāh instead of its translation. The word Allāh (Arabic: اللَّٰه) literally translates as God.[2][3][4]
↑ The Consultative Assembly does not possess the legislative powers of a typical parliament. It serves a consultative role, with the authority to summon ministers and government officials to question them regarding the performance of their ministries. It may also propose laws and amendments, although such proposals require approval through the government’s legislative process, with final decisions involving the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers.[7][8]

↑ Pegged to the United States dollar (USD) at 3.75 riyals per USD since 1986[14]
↑ /ˌsaʊdi əˈreɪbiə/ ⓘ SOW-dee ə-RAY-bee-ə, US also /ˌsɔːdi -/ ⓘ SAW-dee -⁠; Arabic: ٱلسُّعُودِيَّة, romanized: as-Suʿūdiyya, Arabic pronunciation: [s.su.ʕuː.dij.ja].
↑ Arabic: ٱلْمَمْلَكَة ٱلْعَرَبِيَّة ٱلسُّعُودِيَّة, romanized: al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya, Arabic pronunciation: [lmam.la.ka‿l.ʕa.ra.bij.ja‿s.su.ʕuː.dij.ja], pronunciationⓘ.
↑ Formerly the Organisation of the Islamic Conference.
↑ The Mosque of the Companions in the Eritrean city of Massawa dates to approximately the same period, the 7th century CE.[411]
↑ Proponents prefer the name Salafist, considering Wahhabi derogatory.
↑ A number of Muslims, using justifications from the Quran,[489][490][491] insist that Islam did not begin with Muhammad, but that it represents even previous prophets such as Abraham,[492][493][494][495] who is credited with having established the sanctuary of Mecca.[496][497][498]



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↑ World Bank (2020). World Bank's Women, Business and the Law 2020 report (PDF). Washington, DC: World Bank Publications. p. 11. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-1532-4. hdl:10400.14/39334. ISBN 978-1-4648-1533-1. LCCN 2020901241. S2CID 214418106.
↑ Ellen Wulfhorst (14 January 2020). "Saudi Arabia leads in women's legal gains at work, World Bank says". Reuters. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
↑ Nadworny, Katie (18 October 2019). "Saudi Arabia's Legal Reforms Help Women in the Workforce". Society for Human Resources Management. Archived from the original on 14 August 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
↑ "'I am so happy': Activist reacts to end of ban on female drivers in Saudi Arabia". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 26 September 2017. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
↑ Long, p. 66
↑ Otto, p. 164
↑ Otto, p. 163
↑ "Saudi Arabia Reforms Marriage Laws To Empower Women". About Her. 9 March 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2022.
1 2 Otto, p. 165
↑ 'The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage', The Independent, 6 August 2005. Retrieved 17 January 2011
↑ 'Islamic heritage lost as Makkah modernises' Center for Islamic Pluralism
↑ 'Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca', The Independent, 19 April 2006
↑ "Destruction of Islamic Architectural Heritage in Saudi Arabia: A Wake-up Call". The American Muslim. Archived from the original on 23 March 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
↑ Howden, Daniel (18 April 2006). "Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca". The Independent. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
↑ "Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
↑ "At-Turaif District in ad-Dir'iyah". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
↑ "Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Makkah". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
↑ "Al-Ahsa Oasis, an Evolving Cultural Landscape". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
↑ "Rock Art in the Hail Region of Saudi Arabia". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
↑ "Ḥimā Cultural Area". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
↑ "'Uruq Bani Ma'arid". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 12 March 2024.
↑ KSA Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List (4), Unesco, 2017
↑ "UNESCO – Saudi Arabia". ich.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2019.
↑ "Saudi Arabia to spend $1bn on cultural heritage". Saudi Mission EU. 30 June 2016. Archived from the original on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 23 April 2026.
↑ Destruction du patrimoine : une résolution historique du Conseil de Sécurité, Sciences et Avenir, 28 March 2017
↑ Chulov, Marin (24 October 2017). "I will return Saudi Arabia to moderate Islam, says crown prince". The Guardian. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
↑ Al Wasmi, Naser (20 June 2018). "Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman's dynamic year of reform". The National. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
↑ "Catholic cardinal meets Saudi King in historic visit to Riyadh". Reuters. Archived from the original on 27 May 2018. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
↑ "Saudi Arabia commits US$25 million to UNESCO for the protection of heritage". UNESCO. 12 July 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
↑ "Archaeology breakthrough! 4,000-year-old fort city found hidden in Saudi oasis". The Independent. 5 November 2024. Retrieved 5 November 2024.
↑ "Traditional dress of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia". 29 September 2015. Archived from the original on 18 October 2015.
↑ World Focus. 5 January 2009
↑ "Babylon & Beyond". Los Angeles Times. 23 December 2008.
↑ "Folk Music & Dance". embassies.mofa.gov.sa. The Embassy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Washington, DC. Retrieved 19 July 2025.
↑ Mostyn, Trevor (24 August 2010). "Ghazi al-Gosaibi obituary". The Guardian. London.
↑ "Triumphant Trilogy", by Malu Halasa, Time, 17 January 2005
↑ "Sex and the Saudi Girl". The Times. 8 July 2007
↑ "Saudi Arabia allows concerts—even country music". The Economist. 1 June 2017. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
↑ "Mohammed Abdu to perform live in Riyadh". Arab News. 2 September 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
↑ Mazzetti, Mark; Hubbard, Ben (15 October 2016). "Rise of Saudi Prince Shatters Decades of Royal Tradition". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
↑ Reid, David (11 December 2011). "Saudi Arabia to reopen public cinemas for the first time in 35 years". CNBC. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
↑ Nick, Vivarelli (9 April 2018). "Saudi Arabia to Debut at Cannes With Its First National Pavilion". Variety. Retrieved 24 September 2018.
↑ The Report: Saudi Arabia 2008. Oxford Business Group. 2008. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-902339-00-9.
↑ "Index | RSF". rsf.org. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
1 2 Aarti Nagraj (26 March 2013). "Revealed: 10 Oldest Newspapers In The GCC". Gulf Business. Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 14 January 2014.
↑ "How Arab News, Saudi Arabia's first English-language newspaper, was born". Arab News. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
↑ "Arab Media Influence Report". AMIR. Archived from the original on 12 September 2014. Retrieved 12 September 2014.
↑ "Individuals using the Internet (% of population) – Saudi Arabia | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
↑ "Saudi 5G Is Fast, and New Spectrum Allocations Should Make it Faster". Ookla – Providing network intelligence to enable modern connectivity. 19 April 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
↑ "This country has the world's fastest 5G download speed". Zee News. 20 October 2020. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
↑ "The eCommerce market in Saudi Arabia". ecommerceDB. 8 June 2022. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
↑ MacInnes, Paul (11 December 2024). "Saudi Arabia confirmed as 2034 World Cup host despite human rights concerns". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 11 December 2024.
↑ "Saudi 2034 plans include stadium 350m above ground". BBC. 1 August 2024. Retrieved 24 November 2024.
↑ "Saudi Arabian Slam Dunk, Fall 1997, Winter 1998, Volume 14, Number 4, Saudi Arabia". Saudiembassy.net. Archived from the original on 28 October 2011.
↑ Al, Joud. "Saudi women show greater interest in sports and games". Arab News. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012.
↑ Krastev, Todor (21 September 2011). "Men Basketball Asia Championship 1999 Fukuoka (JPN)- 28.08–05.09 Winner China". Todor66.com. Archived from the original on 18 January 2012.
↑ "Saudi women push for right to play sports – Sport". Arabian Business. ArabianBusiness.com. 1 March 2012.
↑ "Saudi Arabia opens first sports centre for women". GulfNews.com. 3 June 2013. Retrieved 28 June 2013.
↑ "Saudi government sanctions sports in some girls' schools". CNN. 5 May 2013.
↑ "Saudi Arabia: No women on Asian Games Team". Human Rights Watch. 18 September 2014.
↑ Grinberg and Hallam, Emanuella and Jonny (30 October 2017). "Saudi Arabia to let women into sports stadiums". CNN/2017/10/29/middleeast/saudi-arabia-women-sports-arenas/index.html. CNN. Retrieved 11 December 2017.
↑ "Empowered through sports, Saudi females take the sector by storm". Al Arabiya English. 5 December 2021. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
↑ "Saudi women's sport grows by leaps and bounds". Arab News. 8 March 2021. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
↑ "Female athletes change the game in Saudi". www.visitsaudi.com. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
↑ "Saudi Arabia stages first-ever nationwide women's league". www.fifa.com. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
↑ "Sportswashing: how Saudi Arabia lobbies the US's largest sports bodies". The Guardian. 2 September 2019. Retrieved 2 September 2019.




Abir, Mordechai (1987). Saudi Arabia in the oil era: regime and elites : conflict and collaboration. Croom Helm. ISBN 978-0-7099-5129-2.
Abir, Mordechai (1993). Saudi Arabia: Government, Society, and the Persian Gulf Crisis. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09325-5.
Al-Rasheed, Madawi (2010). A History of Saudi Arabia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-74754-7.
Bowen, Wayne H. (2007). The History of Saudi Arabia. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-34012-3.
Hegghammer, Thomas (2010). Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism Since 1979. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73236-9.
House, Karen Elliott (2012). On Saudi Arabia: Its People, Past, Religion, Fault Lines—and Future. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-27216-4.
Long, David E. (2005). Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-0-313-32021-7.
Malbouisson, Cofie D. (2007). Focus on Islamic issues. Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60021-204-8.
Otto, Jan Michiel (2010). Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 978-90-8728-057-4.
Tripp, Harvey; North, Peter (2009). CultureShock! A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Saudi Arabia (3rd ed.). Marshall Cavendish.
Tripp, Harvey; North, Peter (2003). Culture Shock, Saudi Arabia. A Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Singapore; Portland, Oregon: Times Media Private Limited.





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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saudi_Arabia&oldid=1371314558"Page 2Fifth-generation mobile telecommunications standard
For other uses, see 5G (disambiguation).

3GPP logo for 5G
Part of a series on theWireless network technologies
Analog
0G1G (1.5G)

Digital
2G (2.5G,  2.75G, 2.9G)3G (3.5G, 3.75G, 3.9G/3.95G)4G (4G/4.5G, 4.5G, 4.9G)5G (5.5G)6G

Mobile telecommunicationsvte

5G is the fifth and current generation of cellular network technology and the successor to 4G. In common commercial use, the term refers primarily to mobile networks based on the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) 5G system and its New Radio (NR) air interface, which were first specified in 3GPP Release 15.[1] 5G was developed to meet the International Telecommunication Union's IMT-2020 framework for fifth-generation mobile systems.[2] Large-scale commercial deployments began in 2019, including South Korea's national 5G rollout.[3] 5G networks may be deployed in non-standalone mode, using existing LTE core-network infrastructure, or in standalone mode with a dedicated 5G Core.

Like earlier cellular systems, 5G networks divide service areas into smaller zones called cells, which are served by fixed cell sites. Compatible devices connect by radio to local base stations, which are linked to an operator's core network and to external networks such as the Internet through backhaul connections. 5G can be deployed using low-band, mid-band, and high-band radio spectrum, with coverage and performance depending heavily on the frequencies used, network design, congestion, and device capabilities.[4]

Compared with 4G, 5G is designed to provide higher data rates, greater network capacity, lower latency, improved support for dense device deployments, and more flexible network management. For IMT-2020 radio-interface evaluation, the ITU specified peak data-rate requirements of 20 Gbit/s downlink and 10 Gbit/s uplink under ideal conditions, as well as latency and connection-density targets for enhanced mobile broadband, ultra-reliable low-latency communications, and massive machine-type communications.[2] Actual user speeds are typically much lower than peak values and vary by operator, location, spectrum band, signal quality, and network load.

A 5G cell site using Ericsson equipment in the United States

5G is used for mobile broadband, fixed wireless access, private and industrial networks, and machine-type communications. Its standards support features such as network slicing, edge computing, non-public networks, and ultra-reliable low-latency services, although these capabilities are not present in every deployment. The rollout of 5G has required new spectrum allocations and upgrades to radio access, transport, and core-network infrastructure. It has also raised issues involving deployment cost, energy use, vendor security, and public claims about radio-frequency health effects. 5G is being deployed alongside 4G networks and is expected to coexist with them for many years.


Cellular network standards and generation timeline


In 2008, NASA and the Machine-to-Machine Intelligence Corporation (M2Mi) conducted nanosatellite communication studies that influenced early next-generation network concepts.[5]  

In 2012, New York University established NYU Wireless, a research center focused on millimeter-wave communication. The same year, the University of Surrey founded the 5G Innovation Centre, funded by £35 million from public and industry partners including Huawei and Samsung.[6] Also in 2012, the European Union launched the Mobile and Wireless Communications Enablers for the Twenty-Twenty Information Society (METIS) project to align emerging network research with international standardization.[7]  


In 2013, the ITU-R Working Party 5D began studies on IMT-2020, later formalized as the 5G standard.[8]  

During the same period, major firms such as Samsung Electronics, NTT Docomo, and Huawei conducted early trials. Samsung tested a prototype achieving more than 1 Gbit/s across 2 km using 8 × 8 MIMO antennas.[9] NTT Docomo received a government award at CEATEC for high-speed network development,[10] while Huawei announced a US$600 million program to advance mobile network technology.[11]  


On April 3, 2019, South Korea launched its national network, the first full commercial deployment.[12] Hours later, Verizon began limited service in select U.S. cities.[13] In June 2019, Globe Telecom introduced the Philippines' first next-generation network,[14] and in December 2019, AT&T launched a consumer service in the United States that expanded nationwide during 2020.[15]  

Commercial 5G deployment expanded rapidly through 2020. Beyond public mobile networks, it was also adopted in private industrial and enterprise systems, including operation in unlicensed spectrum (NR-U) and licensed non-public networks (NPNs).[16] Private 5G networks became important for Industry 4.0 automation and smart manufacturing.[17] Early rollouts used non-standalone (NSA) mode—with 4G cores—before networks transitioned to standalone (SA) mode with dedicated 5G cores.[18]

South Korea's 2019 rollout used equipment from Samsung, Ericsson, and Nokia; LG U Plus also deployed Huawei hardware.[19]  
Samsung supplied most of the roughly 86,000 sites, while SK Telecom, KT Corporation, and LG U Plus concentrated coverage in major cities using the 3.5 GHz band under NSA operation. Reported download speeds averaged 200–400 Mbit/s, and subscriptions grew from about 260,000 to 4.7 million during 2019.[20]  

Following these early deployments, T-Mobile US launched the first nationwide standalone network in 2020.[21] Ericsson projected that by the mid-2020s, 5G networks would reach about 65 percent of the global population.[22]

Major suppliers of 5G radio and core systems included Altiostar, Cisco Systems, Datang Telecom/Fiberhome, Ericsson, Huawei, Nokia, Qualcomm, Samsung, and ZTE. Huawei was estimated to hold about 70 percent of global 5G base stations by 2023.[23]


By 2022, network speeds in many regions had stabilized, and operators began testing 5.5G upgrades to improve capacity and latency.[24] By the early 2020s, large-scale commercial 5G networks were active across most developed markets, and rollout in developing regions was still accelerating.[25][26]



Main article: Small cell

Small cells are low-power radio nodes that extend network capacity in dense or indoor areas. They operate over short distances, typically a few dozen to a few hundred metres, and are used to maintain coverage for mmWave signals.[27]


Typical FR2 cell characteristics
Cell typeEnvironmentUsers (approx.)Power (W)Range (m)

FemtocellHomes, offices4–320.01–1up to 50

PicocellPublic venues64–1280.1–5up to 100

MicrocellUrban areas128–2565–10200–500

MacrocellWide-area coverage25
26300–1000



See also: Multi-user MIMO

Massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems use large antenna arrays to increase capacity and spectral efficiency. They extend conventional MIMO by serving multiple users simultaneously and steering signals toward them to reduce interference.[28]


Main article: Beamforming

Beamforming directs radio energy toward specific users. In analogue beamforming, antenna outputs are combined to focus signal power in one direction. Digital beamforming transmits data streams across multiple layers to improve signal strength and reliability.[29]


Non-orthogonal multiple access assigns different power levels to users sharing the same frequency resources to improve spectral efficiency.[30]


5G NR uses polar codes for control channels and low-density parity-check codes (LDPC) for data channels, replacing the turbo codes used in 4G.[31]


Research has explored the use of 5G mmWave networks for wireless power transfer. Studies using wavelengths between 1 mm and 10 mm remain experimental.[32]


The 5G core (5GC) is a service-oriented, software-defined system that separates control and user planes and supports flexible deployment. It replaces the 4G Evolved Packet Core with modular, software-based network functions.


Main articles: Software-defined networking, SD-WAN, Network function virtualization, and 5G network slicing

Software-defined networking (SDN) and network function virtualization (NFV) enable software-based configuration, scaling, and management of networks. Together with network slicing, these technologies support applications such as the Internet of things, connected vehicles, and industrial automation.[33]


Service-based architecture (SBA) integrates SDN and NFV principles and replaces the 4G EPC framework with modular network functions that communicate through RESTful APIs. Each function registers with a network repository function (NRF), which enables independent scaling and interoperability.[34]


Each network function performs a defined role within the 5G core, replacing or extending elements from the 4G EPC.[35]


Core network functions in 5G
FunctionAcronym4G equivalent

Authentication server functionAUSFMME; HSS

Access and mobility management functionAMFMME

Session management functionSMFMME; PGW-C

User plane functionUPFSGW-U; PGW-U

Policy control functionPCFPCRF

Unified data managementUDMHSS

Unified data repositoryUDRHSS database

Network exposure functionNEFNone

Network slice selection functionNSSFNone

Network data analytics functionNWDAFNone

Charging functionCHFCSCF



Additional components manage roaming and inter-network connectivity:
Non-3GPP Interworking Function (N3IWF)
Security Edge Protection Proxy (SEPP)
Trusted Non-3GPP Gateway Function (TNGF)
Trusted WLAN Interworking Function (TWIF)
Wireline Access Gateway Function (W-AGF)


Further information: 5G NR frequency bands

5G networks use multiple parts of the radio spectrum. They operate across three main frequency ranges—low, mid, and high bands—which balance speed, coverage, and signal quality differently.[36]

Between 2016 and 2019, regulators in many regions, including the United States and the European Union, reallocated large sections of spectrum for 5G through auctions and new licensing rules.[37] By 2019, more than 50 countries had assigned or planned to assign 5G frequencies.[38] In 3GPP Release 16, the standard added 5G NR-U, allowing operation in both unlicensed and licensed spectrum.[39]


The 5G New Radio (NR) interface defines two main operating ranges:

Frequency Range 1 (FR1) – 410 MHz to 7.125 GHz, also called sub-6 GHz. It covers low- and mid-band frequencies and supports channel bandwidths up to 100 MHz. Typical download speeds range from 5 to 900 Mbit/s depending on conditions.
Frequency Range 2 (FR2) – 24.25–71 GHz, known as millimeter wave or high band. It supports wider channel bandwidths—up to 400 MHz per carrier—and can reach multi-gigabit data rates. These signals travel only short distances and are easily blocked by walls, windows, and vegetation, so FR2 is mainly used in dense urban areas such as stadiums and city centers.[40]


Low- and mid-band 5G provide broad coverage and reliable indoor reception.  
High-band signals weaken rapidly and may lose over 100 dB when passing through common building materials.[41] Operators use beamforming antennas, small cells, and signal repeaters to extend range and improve indoor coverage.


Technologies such as License Assisted Access (LAA) and LTE-WLAN Aggregation (LWA) let mobile networks share unlicensed spectrum with Wi-Fi. Cloud-based RAN systems and dense small-cell layouts help narrow the performance gap between cellular and Wi-Fi links.[42]


The ITU-R defines three main application areas for 5G: enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC), and massive machine-type communications (mMTC).[43] These categories describe the main uses of 5G: faster mobile connections (eMBB), highly reliable and responsive communication (URLLC), and large-scale links between machines (mMTC). By 2020, eMBB was widely deployed, while URLLC and mMTC were still in development.[44]


Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) provides much faster internet and higher capacity than 4G. It supports intensive data use in busy areas such as city centres, stadiums, and transport hubs.[45]  

Ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC) are designed for time-critical applications such as factory automation, remote medical procedures, and traffic systems. Shorter transmission delays improve precision and reliability.  

Massive machine-type communications (mMTC) connect large numbers of low-power devices such as sensors and meters. These networks underpin the Internet of things (IoT) by allowing machines to exchange data autonomously in industry, transport, and urban systems.[46]


5G is used in transport, manufacturing, and energy systems that require constant, low-latency communication. The 5G Automotive Association develops vehicle-to-everything (C-V2X) standards that allow cars to exchange safety information with nearby vehicles and infrastructure.[47] Drones and autonomous vehicles use 5G for navigation, remote control, and real-time data transmission.[48] Low-latency connections also enable digital twin models—virtual copies of machines or buildings that show real-time performance data used for monitoring and maintenance.


5G extends to public safety, broadband access, and media delivery. Emergency services use it for live video, data, and reliable push-to-talk communication.[49] Fixed wireless access (FWA) provides home and business broadband using 5G radio links instead of wired connections, especially in rural areas where laying cables is costly.[50]  5G Broadcast trials in Europe show that local 5G networks can deliver live television and radio to many devices simultaneously without using mobile data plans.[51][52] Voice over NR (VoNR) allows phone calls to be made over 5G's internet-based network, similar to Voice over LTE (VoLTE) on 4G.[53]


This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.  (October 2025)


5G can deliver much higher data rates than 4G, up to ten times faster.[54][55] Theoretical peak download speeds reach up to 20 Gbit/s.[56] In practice, average 5G download speeds in the United States have been measured at about 186 Mbit/s by T-Mobile,[57] while South Korea in 2022 led globally with averages near 430 Mbit/s.[58][59] 5G networks are also designed to provide much greater total capacity and efficiency than 4G, with up to a hundredfold projected increase.[60]

The most widely deployed version, sub-6 GHz (mid-band) 5G, provides speeds of roughly 10–1000 Mbit/s with wider reach than mmWave bands. C-Band (n77/n78) was introduced in the U.S. in 2022, though activation by Verizon and AT&T was briefly delayed due to FAA safety concerns. The highest 5G speed measured in a deployed network is 5.9 Gbit/s (2023).[61] Low-band frequencies such as n5 cover larger areas per cell but deliver lower data rates of around 5–250 Mbit/s.[62]


Typical air latency for 5G is around 8–12 ms, excluding retransmissions and handovers. Verizon reported about 30 ms latency in early deployments.[63] Edge servers located near base stations can reduce round-trip time to roughly 14 ms and minimize jitter to about 1.8 ms.[64] Latency increases substantially during handovers, ranging from 50 to 150 ms depending on network conditions.[65] Ongoing research focuses on reducing these interruptions by adjusting handover margins and time-to-trigger parameters.


5G uses adaptive modulation and coding schemes (MCS) to maintain a low block error rate (BLER). When the error rate exceeds a threshold, the system automatically switches to a lower MCS to prioritize reliability over speed.


The range of 5G varies with transmit power, frequency, and interference.
High-frequency mmWave bands (e.g., n258) have a shorter range than mid-band (n78), which in turn has a shorter range than low-band (n5). Operators use network simulation and drive testing to measure the actual range and coverage of these bands, as real-world performance can differ from marketing claims.


The term 5G was first associated with the International Telecommunication Union's IMT-2020 standard. It defines peak download and upload rates of 20 and 10 Gbit/s.[66]

The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) later proposed its 5G New Radio (NR) technology for IMT-2020.[67][68]


5G NR operates in two bands:
FR1 (Sub-6 GHz; 410 MHz to 7.125 GHz): low and mid-band frequencies with wide coverage and moderate speeds.
FR2 (24.25 GHz to 71 GHz): millimeter-wave (mmWave; higher) frequencies with higher speeds but shorter range.[69]

Early FR1 deployments reusing 4G infrastructure (non-standalone mode) have been reported to provide 15–50 percent higher throughput than advanced 4G networks under favorable conditions.[70]


5G networks can operate in Non-Standalone (NSA) mode using existing LTE infrastructure or Standalone (SA) mode using a dedicated 5G Core (5GC) network.[71]


3GPP and ETSI publish key technical specifications, including:
TS 23.501 – system architecture for the 5G system (5GS)
TS 24.501 – Non-Access-Stratum (NAS) protocol for 5GS
TS 23.003 – numbering, addressing and identification[72]
TS 26.131 – terminal acoustic requirements for telephony; Requirements
TS 26.132 – Speech and video telephony terminal acoustic test specification
TS 26.441 – Codec for Enhanced Voice Services; General Overview

Other organizations also contribute to 5G standards.

The DECT-2020 specification defines DECT NR+, a non-cellular, mesh-based radio system recognized by ITU as part of 5G.[73][74]

The IEEE defines standards for wired links between the remote radio unit (RRU) and the baseband unit (BBU). 
IEEE 1914.1 describes the architecture of the fronthaul network connecting these components
IEEE 1914.3 defines an Ethernet format for transmitting I/Q data based on 3GPP functional splits[75]


5Gi was developed in India by IIT Madras, IIT Hyderabad, the Telecommunications Standards Development Society India (TSDSI) and the Centre of Excellence in Wireless Technology (CEWiT). It extends 5G coverage in rural and remote areas through low-mobility large-cell (LMLC) configurations.[76] 5Gi was merged in April 2022 into the global 5G NR standard in 3GPP Release 17.[77]


In the Internet of things (IoT), 3GPP defines the evolution of NB-IoT and eMTC to support low-power wide-area applications such as connected sensors and meters.[78]


See also: Voice over NR
3GPP standards also define advanced communication services for voice and connected devices.

3GPP defines Voice over NR as a technology that enables native, high-quality voice over a 5G Standalone network through the 5G System Architecture. Unlike early 5G Non-Standalone deployments that relied on Evolved Packet System Fallback, VoNR integrates directly with the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) used in VoLTE. It uses NAS protocols to establish high-priority QoS flows that support URLLC requirements for voice traffic. Support for 5G Standalone is a prerequisite for VoNR. VoNR benefits from the enhanced security architecture of the 5G Core network, including improved subscriber identity protection. VoNR delivers superior audio quality through the Enhanced Voice Services (EVS) codec, which must adhere to rigorous terminal acoustic requirements and standardized testing procedures.[79][80]

Most phones released since 2023 (such as the iPhone 15 series and newer flagship devices) support VoNR, but availability depends on carrier enablement in specific areas.[citation needed]


3GPP also defines non-terrestrial networks (NTN) that use satellites and airborne platforms to provide coverage where ground networks are impractical.[81][82] In 2024, the European Space Agency demonstrated the first ground 5G NTN connection to a low earth orbit (LEO) satellite from horizon to peak to horizon elevations using the Ka-band frequency range.[83]


5G-Advanced, also known as 5.5G or 5G-A, is defined in 3GPP Release 18 as a transition between 5G and 6G. It adds features for more efficient spectrum use, lower energy demand, and higher reliability. The release introduces AI- and ML-based network management, extended-reality services, and communication support for autonomous systems.[84][85][86]

Release 18 specifies improved time-synchronization methods independent of the GNSS and built-in geolocation functions. It extends non-terrestrial support to satellite and airborne communication.


5G Reduced Capability (RedCap) in 3GPP Release 17 is designed to bridge the gap between high-performance 5G devices and low-power IoT technologies such as LTE-M and NB-IoT. It was created to address use cases between Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC), and Massive Machine-Type Communication (mMTC) technologies.[87]


Samsung Galaxy S10 showing 5G signal

The Global Mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) compiled the first database of 5G-compatible products, listing 23 manufacturers and 33 models across categories such as smartphones, hotspots, and customer-premises equipment.[88] Later surveys recorded more than one hundred announced products from over fifty vendors.[89]

Early 5G modem chipsets were released by Intel, MediaTek, Qualcomm, and Samsung, followed by additional platforms in subsequent product generations.[90]

The Samsung Galaxy S10 5G was among the first smartphones to support 5G networks.[91] Other early 5G models included the Nokia 8.3 5G, designed for operation across low- to mid-band frequencies;[92] the Google Pixel 5 and Pixel 4a (5G);[93] and Apple's iPhone 12 series, the company's first generation with 5G capability.[94][95]

Google Pixel 8 Showing MTN Nigeria 5G Signal

By the early 2020s, most high-end smartphones featured 5G capability, while some consumer devices still lack full support. As a result, the practical benefits for mid range phone users have been modest, and 5G adoption has lagged behind expectations.[96]



In 2019, the European Commission and the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) warned that 5G networks could expand potential attack surfaces for state actors, recommending diversification of suppliers. Nokia and Ericsson are the only European manufacturers.[97]

Researchers from ETH Zurich and partner universities found weaknesses in the 5G authentication process that could expose users to new security risks.[98] They concluded that the system was still immature and that its higher data capacity could increase exposure to attacks.[99]

A 2022 study identified a design flaw in the Evolved Packet System (EPS) that could affect device behavior during network switching.[100]


Growth of the Internet of things increases the number of devices connected through 5G. IoT Analytics estimated growth from about 7 billion devices in 2018 to over 21 billion by 2025, raising exposure to DDoS attacks, cryptojacking, and other cyberattacks.[101]


Concerns about espionage and data access have influenced national policies. The United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom have restricted or banned Chinese-made equipment.[102]

A 2012 report by the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence concluded that equipment from Huawei and ZTE could pose national-security risks.[103] Later assessments by U.S. intelligence agencies warned that Huawei products could allow covert data access.[104] In 2022, the FBI reported that Huawei equipment near U.S. military bases could interfere with nuclear communications.[105]

Huawei and the Chinese government deny the allegations. Analysts note that China's National Security Law could require companies to provide data to authorities if requested.[106]

In 2020, the United States Department of State launched The Clean Network initiative to promote data privacy and security among allied nations. By year-end, more than 60 countries and 200 telecommunications companies had joined, including most NATO, EU, and OECD members.[107]



Some 5G bands, such as n258 at 26 GHz, are close to frequencies used for passive remote sensing by weather and Earth observation satellites, including water vapor measurements at 23.8 GHz.[108] Interference with satellite observations could reduce the accuracy of numerical weather prediction models and affect sectors such as commercial aviation.[109]

NASA, NOAA, and the U.S. Navy warned that out-of-band emissions from 5G transmissions near 24 GHz could degrade forecasts by up to 30 %.[110] The 2019 World Radiocommunication Conference set an interim limit of −33 dBW until 2027, followed by −39 dBW. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) warned that these limits could reduce forecast reliability.[111]


In 2021–2022, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) warned that some 5G signals could interfere with aircraft radar altimeters, which operate at 4.2–4.4 GHz, while new 5G services use 3.7–4.0 GHz.[112] Europe uses lower frequencies (3.4–3.8 GHz), reducing the risk.[113]


Further information: C band (IEEE)

Some 5G allocations overlap with frequencies used by C band satellite communication systems. Interference can occur when networks operate in 3.3–3.6 GHz, near satellite reception at 3.4–4.2 GHz[114] Mitigation uses low-noise block downconverters and waveguide filters.


5G and Wi-Fi 6E share the 6 GHz band, which enables efficient spectrum use but requires coordination to prevent interference. Both operate under unlicensed conditions in the US and EU, supporting NR-U and Wi-Fi 6E technologies.[115]


Analysts note that marketing of 5G has often overstated its capabilities.[116] Common concerns include limited user benefits, short range of mmWave signals, and rebranding of non-5G improvements as 5G.[117]

A 2020 survey by McKinsey & Company found that operators identified few immediately profitable use cases.[118] Consumer surveys show mixed attitudes, with skepticism about marketing claims and uneven coverage in early deployments.[119] Industry groups and network operators state that 5G enables faster speeds and lower latency, though results depend on infrastructure rollout and available spectrum. In contrast to the initial excitement about the prospects, many firms striving for deployment have encountered reality, users are not eager to upgrade the technology.[120] Five years after its launch, a majority of users have yet to transition to the new standard.[121]


Main article: 5G misinformation


Further information: Wireless device radiation and health

Public concern about the effects of wireless signals predates 5G technology. Similar concerns were raised about earlier mobile standards in the 1990s and 2000s. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "exposure to intense, direct amounts of non-ionizing radiation may result in tissue damage due to heat. This is uncommon and mainly a workplace concern for those working with large sources of non-ionizing radiation."[122]

Some critics argue that existing exposure limits are too lenient or influenced by industry lobbying. Claims that the use of 5G mobile networks can cause cancer are unsupported by scientific evidence.[123]

Several books making unverified claims about wireless health effects have been published. One, by Joseph Mercola, alleged links to ADHD, heart disease, and brain cancer. Mercola was criticized for promoting misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic and warned by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for selling unapproved COVID-19 cures.[124][125]

According to The New York Times, controversy regarding 5G health effects partly originated from an unpublished 2000 report by physicist Bill P. Curry for the Broward County School Board, which incorrectly concluded that higher-frequency microwaves are absorbed more deeply by the brain.[126] Later analyses showed that this was a misunderstanding of in vitro research results. Experts noted that millimeter-wave frequencies used by 5G cannot penetrate the skin or reach internal organs. 

In a 2019 article, the same newspaper reported that RT America promoted claims linking 5G to diseases such as brain cancer, infertility, and Alzheimer's disease. The network aired several such programs in 2019, later cited by numerous blogs and websites.[127]

In 2019, cities such as Brussels and Geneva temporarily halted 5G rollouts pending radiation assessments.[128][129] The Swiss Telecommunications Association stated that studies had not demonstrated adverse health effects from 5G exposure.[130]

Similar debates occurred in the Netherlands, the United States, and the United Kingdom, where some municipalities briefly delayed deployments or issued precautionary statements.[131][132]

The Food and Drug Administration maintains that existing exposure limits for cellphone radiofrequency energy are sufficient to protect public health.[133]

Low-level electromagnetic fields (EMF) can have measurable biological effects in plants and animals, but research remains inconclusive about health risks to humans.[134] A 2019 meta-analysis found that while many in vitro and in vivo studies detected biological responses to radiofrequency exposure, the evidence did not establish health risks.[135] 


A World Health Organization infographic debunking false claims that 5G spreads COVID-19

The rollout of 5G technology began during the COVID-19 pandemic, prompting conspiracy theories that linked 5G to the pandemic.[136]

These claims led to arson attacks on telecom masts in parts of Europe, including the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Italy.[137][138][139] In the United Kingdom, at least 61 mobile masts were reportedly set on fire.[140]

During the early months of the pandemic, Australian anti-lockdown protesters carried anti-5G signs, later connected to broader conspiracy groups. Two main versions of the conspiracy theory exist:[141]

The first claims that radiation from 5G weakens the immune system, making people more vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19.
The second claims that 5G causes COVID-19. Some versions claim the pandemic hid illnesses blamed on 5G, while others suggest COVID-19 began in Wuhan, one of the first cities with early 5G rollout.


Main articles: AT&T Mobility, LTE Advanced Pro, and LTE Advanced

The marketing of pre-5G technologies refers to the promotion of enhanced 4G networks as precursors or alternatives to 5G. Before and during early 5G deployment, some mobile network operators used terms such as "pre-5G", "5G-ready", "4.5G", and "5G Evolution" for upgraded LTE Advanced or LTE Advanced Pro networks. These networks could use features such as carrier aggregation, 256-QAM, and 4×4 MIMO to increase data rates, but they did not use 5G NR, the radio access technology standardized for 5G networks.[142]

A notable example was 5G Evolution (5GE), introduced by AT&T in 2017 to market higher-speed LTE service with theoretical speeds up to 400 Mbit/s (40 Mbit/s real world), using 3-channel carrier aggregation, 4x4 MIMO and 256-QAM.[143] AT&T described the service as "a foundation for our evolution to 5G while the 5G standards are being finalized", but technology publications criticized the branding as misleading because the underlying network remained based on LTE technologies rather than 5G.[144][142]

In 2019, Sprint sued AT&T, alleging that the 5G Evolution and "5GE" branding misled consumers into believing that they were receiving 5G service. The dispute was later settled.[145] In 2020, the National Advertising Review Board recommended that AT&T stop using "5G Evolution" and related claims in advertising, finding that the terms were misleading; AT&T said it disagreed with the decision but would comply with the self-regulatory process.[146]



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↑ Broad, William J. (July 16, 2019). "The 5G Health Hazard That Isn't". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 1, 2019.
↑ Broad, William J. (May 12, 2019). "Your 5G Phone Won't Hurt You. But Russia Wants You to Think Otherwise". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 20, 2019.
↑ "Brussels halts 5G plans over radiation rules". FierceWireless. April 8, 2019. Archived from the original on April 9, 2019.
↑ "Schweiz: Genf stoppt Aufbau von 5G-Mobilfunkantennen". Heise Online (in German). April 11, 2019. Archived from the original on April 14, 2019.
↑ "5G Mobile Technology Fact Check" (PDF). asut. March 27, 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 3, 2019.
↑ "5G phones and your health: What you need to know". CNET. June 20, 2019. Archived from the original on June 22, 2019.
↑ Humphries, Will (October 12, 2019). "Councils block 5G as scare stories spread". The Times. Archived from the original on October 14, 2019.
↑ "5G: What is it and how will it help us". SmartMobTech. Archived from the original on December 25, 2020.
↑ Levitt, Blake; Lai, Henry; Manville, Albert (2021). "Effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields on flora and fauna, part 1: Rising ambient EMF levels in the environment". Reviews on Environmental Health. 37 (1): 81–122. doi:10.1515/reveh-2021-0026. ISSN 0048-7554. PMID 34047144.
↑ Simkó, M.; Mattsson, M.-O. (September 13, 2019). "5G Wireless Communication and Health Effects—A Pragmatic Review Based on Available Studies Regarding 6 to 100 GHz". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (18): 3406. Bibcode:2019IJERP..16.3406S. doi:10.3390/ijerph16183406. PMC 6765906. PMID 31540320.
↑ Warren, Tom (April 4, 2020). "British 5G towers are being set on fire because of coronavirus conspiracy theories". The Verge. Retrieved December 18, 2025.
↑ Murphy, Ann (April 23, 2020). "Update: Arson attack on Cork mast linked to false 5G conspiracy theory". Echo Live. Retrieved December 18, 2025.
↑ Fildes, Nic; Di Stefano, Mark; Murphy, Hannah (April 16, 2020). "How a 5G coronavirus conspiracy spread across Europe". Financial Times. Retrieved December 18, 2025.
↑ "Mast fire probe amid 5G coronavirus claims". BBC News. April 4, 2020.
↑ Osborne, Charlie (April 30, 2020). "5G mast arson, coronavirus conspiracy theories force social media to walk a fine censorship line". ZDNet. Retrieved December 18, 2025.
↑ Meese, James; Frith, Jordan; Wilken, Rowan (2020). "COVID-19, 5G conspiracies and infrastructural futures". Media International Australia. 177 (1): 30–46. doi:10.1177/1329878X20952165. PMC 7506181.
1 2 Gartenberg, Chaim (April 25, 2017). "AT&T announces it will build a "fake 5G" network". The Verge. Archived from the original on November 21, 2018. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
↑ "What Is 5GE And Why It's Not Actually 5G". Smooth Connectivity. August 19, 2025. Retrieved July 31, 2026.
↑ Cheng, Roger (April 19, 2018). "AT&T brings higher speeds with pre-5G technology to 117 cities". CNET. Archived from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
↑ Finley, Klint (February 8, 2019). "Sprint Sues AT&T, Proving '5G' Is Still Meaningless". Wired. Retrieved June 6, 2026.
↑ Fried, Ina (May 21, 2020). "Ad panel finds AT&T's "5GE" misleading". Axios. Retrieved June 6, 2026.



Karipidis, Ken; Mate, Rohan; Urban, David; Tinker, Rick; Wood, Andrew (July 2023). "5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz". Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology. 31 (4): 585–605. doi:10.1038/s41370-021-00297-6. PMC 8263336. PMID 33727687.


 Media related to 5G at Wikimedia Commons
5G multi-antenna concepts




Preceded by4G
 Mobile telephony generations 2019–present
Succeeded by6G




















Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=5G&oldid=1370514090"Page 3First-generation mobile telecommunications standard
For other uses, see 1G (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with GPRS, a 2G mobile data indicator sometimes shown as "G" on mobile devices.
Part of a series on theWireless network technologies
Analog
0G1G (1.5G)

Digital
2G (2.5G,  2.75G, 2.9G)3G (3.5G, 3.75G, 3.9G/3.95G)4G (4G/4.5G, 4.5G, 4.9G)5G (5.5G)6G

Mobile telecommunicationsvte

1G (first generation) refers to the analog mobile telecommunications standards introduced in the late 1970s. The term was later applied retroactively to distinguish these early cellular network systems from later digital generations.


The first commercial cellular network was launched by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) in Japan in 1979, initially covering Tokyo. Within five years it expanded nationwide and became the world’s first full-scale cellular system.  
Earlier, Bell Laboratories tested a network around Chicago in 1978.[1]

The Nordic countries jointly developed the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) standard, first deployed in Sweden in 1981. NMT introduced international roaming, a feature later adopted by other systems.  
In 1983, Ameritech launched the first 1G network in the United States using the Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) and the Motorola DynaTAC handset.

By the mid-1980s, 1G networks operated across most of Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Adoption varied: Western Europe and North America expanded rapidly, while Eastern Europe and parts of Africa adopted the technology later due to economic and political limits.[2]


1G introduced the cellular network concept which divided service areas into cells, each served by a low-power transmitter, which enabled frequency reuse and higher capacity.[3]  
Although some parts of the network backbone used digital signaling, voice transmission between handset and base station remained analog, typically using frequency modulation similar to land mobile radio systems.


Analog cellular standards of the 1G era included:[4]

Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) – United States and other regions[5]
Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) – Nordic countries and parts of Eastern Europe
Total Access Communication System (TACS) – United Kingdom and other regions
C-450 – West Germany, Portugal, and South Africa
Radiocom 2000 – France, operated by France Télécom
RTMI – Italy
MCS-L1 and MCS-L2 – Japan, developed by NTT
JTACS – Japan, variant of TACS operated by DDI


By the early 1990s, analog 1G systems were replaced by digital GSM and cdmaOne networks, which offered higher capacity, encryption, and text messaging.  
Most 1G networks were decommissioned by the early 2000s, though some persisted longer in remote or developing regions. The last known operational 1G service, in Russia, closed in 2017.[6][7][8]


List of mobile phone generations
2G
3G
4G
4G LTE
5G
6G
6G Melda (Melda is referred to a modern ITU as an advanced Cellular  bandwidth than 6G)



↑ Shi, Mingtao (2007). Technology base of mobile cellular operators in Germany and China: a comparative study from the perspective of the resource-based view (in German). Berlin: Technische Universität Berlin. p. 60. ISBN 9783798320574.
↑ Shi, Mingtao (2007). Technology base of mobile cellular operators in Germany and China: a comparative study from the perspective of the resource-based view (in German). Berlin: Technische Universität Berlin. p. 63. ISBN 9783798320574.
↑ Shi, Mingtao (2007). Technology base of mobile cellular operators in Germany and China: a comparative study from the perspective of the resource-based view (in German). Berlin: Technische Universität Berlin. p. 56. ISBN 9783798320574.
↑ "To open or not to open a technological system: insights from the history of mobile phones and their application to 5G" (PDF). Charles River Associates. May 2021. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2025.
↑ "Advanced Mobile Phone System". Australian Mobile Telecommunications Association. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved 13 October 2025.
↑ "Сети стандарта NMT-450 прекращают свою работу". Retrieved 11 November 2025.
↑ "Сети стандарта NMT-450 прекращают свою работу, стр. 2". Retrieved 11 November 2025.
↑ "Сегодня был отключён Котлас. Всё, стандарта NMT-450 больше не существует". 30 May 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2025.
















Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1G&oldid=1370284145"Page 4Second-generation mobile telecommunications standard
For other uses, see 2G (disambiguation).

Part of a series on theWireless network technologies
Analog
0G1G (1.5G)

Digital
2G (2.5G,  2.75G, 2.9G)3G (3.5G, 3.75G, 3.9G/3.95G)4G (4G/4.5G, 4.5G, 4.9G)5G (5.5G)6G

Mobile telecommunicationsvte
2G refers to the second generation of cellular network technology, which were rolled out globally starting in the early 1990s. The main differentiator to previous mobile telephone systems, retrospectively dubbed 1G, is that the radio signals of 2G networks are digital rather than analog, for communication between mobile devices and base stations. In addition to voice telephony, 2G also made possible the use of data services.

The most common 2G technology has been the GSM standard, which became the first globally adopted framework for mobile communications. Other 2G technologies include cdmaOne and the now-discontinued Digital AMPS (D-AMPS/TDMA),[1] as well as the Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) and Personal Handy-phone System (PHS) in Japan.

The transition to digital technology enabled the implementation of encryption for voice calls and data transmission, significantly improving the security of mobile communications while also increasing capacity and efficiency compared to earlier analog systems. 2G networks were primarily designed to support voice calls and Short Message Service (SMS), with later advancements such as General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) enabling always-on packet data services, including email and limited internet access. 2G was succeeded by 3G technology, which provided higher data transfer rates and expanded mobile internet capabilities.


In 1990, AT&T Bell Labs engineers Jesse Russell, Farhad Barzegar and Can A. Eryaman filed a patent for a digital mobile phone that supports the transmission of digital data. Their patent was cited several years later by Nokia and Motorola when they were developing 2G digital mobile phones.[2]

2G was first commercially launched in 1991 by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in Finland in the form of GSM, which was defined by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).[3] The Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) defined the cdmaOne (IS-95) 2G standard, with an eight to tenfold increase in voice call capacity compared to analog AMPS.[4] The first deployment of cdmaOne was in 1995.[5] In North America, Digital AMPS (IS-54 and IS-136) and cdmaOne (IS-95) were dominant, but GSM was also used.

Later 2G releases in the GSM space, often referred to as 2.5G and 2.75G, include General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE). GPRS allows 2G networks to achieve a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 40 kbit/s (5 kB/s). EDGE increases this capacity, providing a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 384 kbit/s (48 kB/s).

Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their 1G predecessors were:

Digitally encrypted phone conversations, at least between the mobile phone and the cellular base station but not necessarily in the rest of the network.
Significantly more efficient use of the radio frequency spectrum enabling more users per frequency band.
Data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages then expanding to Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS).


Cellular network standards and generation timeline. (Large titles on the colored area refer to the lines to their right.


Main article: GPRS


2.5G ("second-and-a-half generation") refers to 2G systems that incorporate a packet-switched domain alongside the existing circuit-switched domain, most commonly implemented through General Packet Radio Service (GPRS).[6] GPRS enables packet-based data transmission by dynamically allocating multiple timeslots to users, improving network efficiency. However, this does not inherently provide higher speeds, as similar techniques, such as timeslot bundling, are also employed in circuit-switched data services like High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD). Within GPRS-enabled 2G systems, the theoretical maximum transfer rate is 40 kbit/s (5 kB/s).[7]


Main article: EDGE (telecommunication)


2.75G refers to the evolution of GPRS networks into EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) networks, achieved through the introduction of 8PSK (8 Phase Shift Keying) encoding. While the symbol rate remained constant at 270.833 samples per second, the use of 8PSK allowed each symbol to carry three bits instead of one, significantly increasing data transmission efficiency. Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), also known as Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS) or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC), is a backward-compatible digital mobile phone technology built as an extension to standard GSM. First deployed in 2003 by AT&T in the United States, EDGE offers a theoretical maximum transfer speed of 384 kbit/s (48 kB/s).[7]


Evolved EDGE (also known as EDGE Evolution or 2.875G) is an enhancement of the EDGE mobile technology that was introduced as a late-stage upgrade to 2G networks. While EDGE was first deployed in the early 2000s as part of GSM networks, Evolved EDGE was launched much later, coinciding with the widespread adoption of 3G technologies such as HSPA and just before the emergence of 4G networks. This timing limited its practical application.[citation needed]

Evolved EDGE increased data throughput and reduced latencies (down to 80 ms) by utilizing improved modulation techniques, dual carrier support, dual antennas, and turbo codes. It achieved peak data rates of up to 1 Mbit/s, significantly enhancing network efficiency for operators that had not yet transitioned to 3G or 4G infrastructures. However, despite its technical improvements, Evolved EDGE was never widely deployed. By the time it became available, most network operators were focused on implementing more advanced technologies like UMTS and LTE. As of 2016, no commercial networks were reported to support Evolved EDGE.[citation needed]


See also: GSM § Discontinuation
2G, understood as GSM and CdmaOne, has been superseded by newer technologies such as 3G (UMTS / CDMA2000), 4G (LTE / WiMAX) and 5G (5G NR). However, 2G networks were still available as of 2023[update] in most parts of the world, while notably excluding the majority of carriers in North America, East Asia, and Australia.[8][9][10]

Many modern LTE-enabled devices had the ability to fall back to 2G for phone calls, necessary especially in rural areas where later generations have not yet been implemented.[11] In some places, its successor 3G is being shut down rather than 2G – Vodafone previously announced that it had switched off 3G across Europe in 2020 but still retains 2G as a fallback service.[12] In the US T-Mobile shut down their 3G services in 2022 while retaining their 2G GSM network until it was decommissioned on August 3, 2026.[13][14]

Various carriers have made announcements that 2G technology in the United States, Japan, Australia, and other countries are in the process of being shut down, or have already shut down 2G services so that carriers can re-use the frequencies for newer technologies (e.g. 4G, 5G).[15][16] In 2026, Brazil's Vivo also has announced that it will shut down their 2G services to focus exclusively on its 4G and 5G networks.[17]

As a legacy protocol, 2G connectivity is considered insecure.[18] Specifically, there exist well known methods to attack weaknesses in GSM since 2009[19] with practical use in crime.[20] Attack routes on 2G CdmaOne were found later and remain less publicized.[21]

Android 12 and later provide a network setting to disable 2G connectivity for the device.[22] iOS 16 and later can disable 2G connectivity by enabling Lockdown Mode.[23]


In some parts of the world, including the United Kingdom, 2G remains widely used for older feature phones and for internet of things (IoT) devices such as smart meters, eCall systems and vehicle trackers to avoid the high patent licensing cost of newer technologies.[24] Terminating 2G services could leave vulnerable people who rely on 2G infrastructure unable to communicate even with emergency contacts, causing harm and possibly deaths.[25]





Country
Status
Network
Shutdown date
Standard
Notes

 Åland

Ålcom
2025-02-03
GSM
[26]

 Anguilla

Digicel
active
GSM
900 MHz: 5 MHz GSM + 5 MHz UMTS1900 MHz: 5 MHz UMTS [27][28][29][30]

FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM
[31][32]

 Antigua and Barbuda
No Service
APUA
2018-04-01
GSM
[33]

Digicel
2024-05-31
GSM
[34]

FLOW
2024-07-31
GSM
[35]

 Aruba
partiallyunconfirmed
Digicel
2024-06-30
GSM
[36]

SETAR
2026-08-01
GSM
[37]

 Australia
No Service
Hutchison 3
2006-08-09
cdmaOne
[38][39][40][41][42]

Optus
2017-08-01
GSM
2G shut down in WA and NT on 3 Apr 2017.[43][44]

Telstra
2008-04-28
cdmaOne
[45][46][47][48][49]

Telstra
2016-12-01
GSM
[50]

Vodafone
2018-06-14
GSM
[51]

 Bahamas
No Service
BTC
2024-06-30
GSM
[52][53][54]

 Bahrain

Batelco
2021-11-30
GSM
[55]

 Barbados
partiallyunconfirmed
Digicel
2025-12-02
GSM
[56]

FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM


 Belgium

Orange
2028-12-31
GSM
[57]

Telenet
2027
GSM
[58]

Proximus
2027
GSM
[59]

 Bermuda

Digicel
active
GSM
1900 MHz: 15 MHz GSM + 15 MHz LTE [60]

One
active
GSM
1900 MHz: 5 MHz GSM + 20 MHz LTE [60]

 Bonaire
unconfirmed
Digicel
2025-03-31
GSM


FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM


 British Virgin Islands

CCT
active
GSM
1900 MHz: 10 MHz GSM + 20 MHz LTE [61]

Digicel
active
GSM
1900 MHz: 0.2 MHz GSM + 5 MHz UMTS + 10 MHz LTE [61]

FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM
[62]

 Brunei
No Service
UNN
2021-06-01
GSM
National Wholesale Network used by DSTCom, Progresif and imagine.[63][64]

 Canada

Bell
2019-04-30
cdmaOne
Shutdown of CDMA transmitters commenced in remote areas in 2017, followed by an official announcement in June 2018 that 2G devices will lose service soon.[65][66]

Rogers Wireless
2027-11-30
GSM
1900 MHz shutdown in Jun 2021.850 MHz remains active.[67][68][69][70]

SaskTel
2017-07-31
cdmaOne
[71][72]

Telus Mobility
2017-05-31
cdmaOne
[73][74]

 Cayman Islands
partiallyunconfirmed
Digicel
2020-07-01
GSM
[75][76]

FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM


 China

China Mobile
Limited Service(as of Apr 2026)
GSM
1800 MHz: 5 MHz GSM[77][78][79]

China Telecom
2023-12-31
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A/B (3G) service also terminated.Shutdown commenced on 16 Jun 2020.[80][81][82][83][84][85]

China Unicom
2022-12-31
GSM
Shutdown commenced on 18 Apr 2018.[86][87][88][84][89][90]910-915 MHz / 955-960 MHz: 5 MHz GSM or4,2 MHz W-CDMA carrier with two 0,2 MHz GSM carriers on each side

 Chile

Entel
2024-12-31 (est.)
GSM
Shutdown commenced on 11 Jul 2024.[91][92]

 Colombia

Claro
2023-02-23
GSM
[93][94]

Tigo
2022-11-01
GSM
[95]

 Curaçao
partiallyunconfirmed
Digicel
2025-03-31
GSM


FLOW
2024-02-29
GSM
[96][97]

 Dominica
partiallyunconfirmed
Digicel
2027-03-31
GSM


FLOW
2024-03-??
GSM
[98]

 Finland

All operators
2030
GSM
GSM networks must be maintained until end of 2029.[99]

 France

Bouygues
2026-12-31
GSM
[100]

Orange
2026-12-31
GSM
[57][101]

SFR
2026-12-31
GSM
[102]

 Germany

Deutsche Telekom
2028-06-30
GSM
[103]

Vodafone
2028-10-01 /2030-12-31 (IoT)
GSM
[104][105]

Telefónica (O2)
TBD
GSM


 Grenada
unconfirmed
Digicel
2024-03-31
GSM


FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM


 Guam
unconfirmed
GTA Teleguam
TBD
GSM


 Hong Kong
No Service
3
2008-11-20
cdmaOne
Shut down due to license expiry. Government originally did not allow the license to be renewed due to unpopularity, however the government later reversed the decision and held an auction for CDMA2000 service, which PCCW-HKT won the auction and provided CDMA2000 service immediately after 3's license expiry.

3
2021-09-30
GSM
[106]

CMHK
2026-06-23
GSM
[107][108]

CSL
2005
D-AMPS
Service previously provided by Pacific Link, which subsequently merged into CSL. Shut down due to license expiry. Government did not allow the license to be renewed due to unpopularity.

CSL
2017-10-31
cdmaOne
Service previously provided by PCCW. After acquisition of CSL by HKT, its mobile business PCCW Mobile was merged into CSL. No service for local customers, only served incoming roaming tourists.CSL terminated its CDMA family business two years before its licence expiry, and CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated along with cdmaOne.[109]

CSL
2024-11-08
GSM
[110]

SmarTone
2022-10-14
GSM
[111]

 Iceland

Nova
2025-01-28
GSM
[112]

Síminn
2026-01-05
GSM
[113]

Sýn
2025-06-01
GSM
[114]

 Israel

Hot Mobile
2019-12-31
iDEN
[115]


2025
GSM
Per government statement.[116]

 Jamaica
No Service
Digicel
2024-08-31
GSM
[117][118]

FLOW
2024-04-15
GSM
[119][118][120]

 Japan
No Service
au KDDI
2012-07-22
cdmaOne
[121]

NTT Docomo
2012-03-31
PDC
[122]

Softbank
2010-03-31
PDC
[123]

 Jordan

Umniah
2021-03-11
GSM
[124]

 Macau
No Service
China Telecom
2010
cdmaOne
[125]

CTM
2019-08-01
GSM
Service for local customers terminated on 4 Jun 2015, but remained for roaming users.[126][127][128]

3
2019-08-01
GSM
Service for local customers terminated on 4 Jun 2015, but remained for roaming users.[126][127]

SmarTone
2019-08-01
GSM
Service for local customers terminated on 4 Jun 2015, but remained for roaming users.[126][127]

 Mexico

AT&T
2016-09-30
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 service also terminated.[129]

2019-09-01
GSM
Local shutdown commenced in Q1 2019.[130]

Movistar
2021-01-01
GSM
[131]

Telcel
active
GSM
GSM-1900

 Montserrat
unconfirmed
Digicel
TBD
GSM


FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM


 Netherlands

KPN
2027-12-01
GSM
[132]

T-Mobile
2021-06-01 /2023-11-15 (IoT)
GSM
[133]

 New Caledonia

OPT-NC
2025
GSM
Shutdown commenced in 2022.[134]

 New Zealand

2degrees
2018-03-15
GSM
[135]

One NZ
2026-03-23
GSM
[136]

Spark
2012-07-31
cdmaOne
[137][138]

 Norway

Telenor
2027-12-31
GSM
[139]

Telia
2025-12-02
GSM
Shutdown commenced in Aug 2025.[139][140]

 Panama

Digicel
2022-06-30
GSM
Complete shutdown of operations and market exit.[141][142][143][144]

Tigo
2026-01-20
GSM
[145]

 Poland

Orange
2030-12-31
GSM
[57]

 Romania

Orange
2030-12-31
GSM
[57]

 Saint Kitts and Nevis

Digicel
2027-03-31
GSM


FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM
[146]

 Saint Lucia
unconfirmed
Digicel
2027-03-31
GSM


FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM
[147]

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines

Digicel
2027-03-31
GSM


FLOW
2023-09-30
GSM
[148][149][150][151]

 Saudi Arabia

stc
2025 Q4
GSM
[152]

 Singapore
No Service
M1
2017-04-18
GSM
[153]

Singtel
2017-04-18
GSM
[153]

StarHub
2017-04-18
GSM
[153]

 Sint Maarten Saba Sint Eustatius
No Service
TelCell
2019-01-01
GSM
[154]

FLOW (UTS)
2017-09-26
GSM
[155]

 Slovakia

Orange
2030-12-31
GSM
[57]

 South Africa


TBD
GSM
Per government statement.[156][157]

 South Korea
No Service
KT
2012-03-19
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rel. 0 (3G) service has also terminated.[158]

LG Uplus
2021-06-30
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A/B (3G) service has also terminated.[159]

SK Telecom
2020-07-27
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rel. 0 (3G) service has also terminated.[160]

 Spain

Orange
2030-12-31
GSM
[57]

 Sweden

Net4Mobility (Telenor/Tele2)
2025-12-09
GSM
[161][162]

Telia
2027-12-31
GSM
[163][164]

  Switzerland
No Service
Salt
2020-12-31
GSM
Shutdown commenced on 1 Jul 2020. A few single 2G-only sites remained until Sep 2023 to preserve CSFB functionality.[165][166][167]

Sunrise
2023-01-03
GSM
With the introduction of S-RAN in 2018 phaseout was previously postponed to 2022.[168][169][170]

Swisscom
2021-04-07
GSM
Official shutdown on 31 Dec 2020 (guaranteed availability).[171][172][173]

 Taiwan
No Service
Chunghwa Telecom
2017-06-30
GSM
[174]

FarEasTone
2017-06-30
GSM
[174]

Taiwan Mobile
2017-06-30
GSM
[174]

 Trinidad and Tobago

Digicel
2025-12-31
GSM
[175]

bmobile (TSTT)
TBD
GSM
850 MHz: 2.5 MHz GSM + 5 MHz UMTS [176][177]

 Turks and Caicos Islands

Digicel
2025-06-30
GSM
900 MHz: 9.8 MHz GSM [178]

FLOW
2024-04-22
GSM
[179]

 Ukraine

Kyivstar
active
GSM
In July 2026, Ukraine's regulator stated that shutting down 2G was not under consideration due to the Russian invasion.[180]

Vodafone
active
GSM

Lifecell
active
GSM

 United Arab Emirates
No Service
Du
2023-12-31
GSM
[181]

Etisalat
2023-12-31
GSM
[182]

 United Kingdom


2033
GSM
Per government statement on confirmation by mobile providers.[183][184][185]

 United States Puerto Rico US Virgin Islands

AT&T
2008-02-18
D-AMPS
TDMA (D-AMPS) on 1900 MHz shut down on 15 July 2007.[186]

2017-01-01
GSM
[187]

Cellcom(US only)
2023-12-01
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated.[188]

Claro(PR only)
2028-12-31
GSM


Commnet Wireless (Choice)(US only)
2022-12-31
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated.[189]

Copper Valley Wireless
2022-09-30
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated.[190]

Edge Wireless
2007-06-30
D-AMPS
[191]

Inland Cellular
2025-09-03
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated.[192]

T-Mobile
2026-08-03
GSM
[193][194][195] Shutdown commenced on 03 Feb 2025 and was completed in most of the USA on 03 Aug 2026, with the final 2G tower in Sacramento, CA going offline on 04 Aug 2026.

T-Mobile (Sprint)
2022-05-31
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated.Shutdown commenced on 31 Mar 2022.[196][197][198][199]

UScellular(US only)
2009–02
D-AMPS
[200]

UScellular(US only)
2024-01-14
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated.[201][202]

Verizon(US only)
2022-12-31
cdmaOne
CDMA2000 1xRTT, EV-DO Rev. A (3G) service has also terminated.[203]

 Venezuela

Digitel
2024-03-08
GSM
Shutdown commenced in May 2021.[204][205]

Movilnet
2025
GSM
[204]

Movistar
2025
GSM
Shutdown commenced on 1 Jul 2022.[204]

 Vietnam
No Service
Gmobile
2024-10-16
GSM
per government regulation[206]

Mobifone
2024-10-16
GSM
per government regulation[206]

Viettel
2024-10-16
GSM
per government regulation[206]

Vinaphone
2024-10-16
GSM
per government regulation[206]



Cliff effect
Dropout
List of mobile phone generations
Mobile radio telephone, also known as 0G
1G
3G
4G
5G
6G
Wireless device radiation and health



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↑ "Digicel will spend $20 million on its network, retires 2G on December 31". TechNewsTT. 28 November 2025. Retrieved 31 January 2026.
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1 2 3 4 "2G network switched off by the end of October 15". VnEconomy. 17 September 2024. Retrieved 12 October 2024.





Preceded by1st Generation (1G)
 Mobile Telephony Generations 
Succeeded by3rd Generation (3G)


















Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2G&oldid=1370947733"Page 5Third-generation mobile telecommunications standard
For other uses, see 3G (disambiguation).

A USB modem for 3G plugged into a laptop.
Part of a series on theWireless network technologies
Analog
0G1G (1.5G)

Digital
2G (2.5G,  2.75G, 2.9G)3G (3.5G, 3.75G, 3.9G/3.95G)4G (4G/4.5G, 4.5G, 4.9G)5G (5.5G)6G

Mobile telecommunicationsvte


3G is the third generation of cellular network technology. These networks were rolled out beginning in the early 2000s and represented a significant advancement over the second generation (2G) and associated technologies, such as GSM and cdmaOne, particularly in terms of data transfer speeds and mobile internet capabilities. The major 3G standards are UMTS (developed by 3GPP) and CDMA2000 (developed by Qualcomm);[1][2] both of these are based on the IMT-2000 specifications established by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).

While 2G networks such as GPRS and EDGE supported limited data services, 3G introduced significantly higher-speed mobile internet and enhanced multimedia capabilities, in addition to improved voice quality.[3] It provided moderate internet speeds suitable for general web browsing and multimedia content including video calling and mobile TV,[3] supporting services that provide an information transfer rate of at least 144 kbit/s.[4][5]

Later 3G releases, often referred to as 3.5G (HSPA) and 3.75G (HSPA+) as well as EV-DO, introduced important improvements, enabling 3G networks to offer mobile broadband access with speeds ranging from several Mbit/s up to 42 Mbit/s.[6] These updates improved the reliability and speed of internet browsing, video streaming, and online gaming, enhancing the overall user experience for smartphones and mobile modems in comparison to earlier 3G technologies. 3G was later succeeded by 4G technology, which provided even higher data transfer rates and introduced advancements in network performance.




A new generation of cellular standards has emerged roughly every decade since the introduction of 1G systems in 1979. Each generation is defined by the introduction of new frequency bands, higher data rates, and transmission technologies that are not backward-compatible due to the need for significant changes in network architecture and infrastructure.


Several telecommunications companies marketed wireless mobile Internet services as 3G, indicating that the advertised service was provided over a 3G wireless network. However, 3G services have largely been supplanted in marketing by 4G and 5G services in most areas of the world. Services advertised as 3G are required to meet IMT-2000 technical standards, including standards for reliability and speed (data transfer rates). To meet the IMT-2000 standards, Third-generation mobile networks, or 3G, must maintain minimum consistent Internet speeds of 144 Kbps.[5] However, many services advertised as 3G provide higher speed than the minimum technical requirements for a 3G service.[7] Subsequent 3G releases, denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, provided mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s for smartphones and mobile modems in laptop computers.[8]

3G branded standards:
The UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) system, standardized by 3GPP in 2001, was used in Europe, Japan, China (with a different radio interface) and other regions predominated by GSM (Global Systems for Mobile Communications) 2G system infrastructure. The cell phones are typically UMTS and GSM hybrids. Several radio interfaces are offered, sharing the same infrastructure:
The original and most widespread radio interface is called W-CDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access).
The TD-SCDMA radio interface was commercialized in 2009 and only offered in China.
The latest UMTS release, HSPA+, can provide peak data rates up to 56 Mbit/s in the downlink in theory (28 Mbit/s in existing services) and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink.
The CDMA2000 system, first offered in 2002, standardized by 3GPP2, used especially in North America and South Korea, sharing infrastructure with the IS-95 2G standard. The cell phones are typically CDMA2000 and IS-95 hybrids. The latest release EVDO Rev. B offers peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s downstream.

The 3G systems and radio interfaces are based on spread spectrum radio transmission technology. While the GSM EDGE standard ("2.9G"), DECT cordless phones and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulfill the IMT-2000 requirements and are approved as 3G standards by ITU, these are typically not branded as 3G and are based on completely different technologies.

The common standards complying with the IMT2000/3G standard are:
EDGE, a revision by the 3GPP organization to the older 2G GSM based transmission methods, which utilizes the same switching nodes, base station sites, and frequencies as GPRS, but includes a new base station and cellphone RF circuits. It is based on the three times as efficient 8PSK modulation scheme as a supplement to the original GMSK modulation scheme. EDGE is still used extensively due to its ease of upgrade from existing 2G GSM infrastructure and cell phones.
EDGE combined with the GPRS 2.5G technology is called EGPRS, and allows peak data rates in the order of 200 kbit/s, just like the original UMTS WCDMA versions and thus formally fulfill the IMT2000 requirements on 3G systems. However, in practice, EDGE is seldom marketed as a 3G system, but a 2.9G system. EDGE shows slightly better system spectral efficiency than the original UMTS and CDMA2000 systems, but it is difficult to reach much higher peak data rates due to the limited GSM spectral bandwidth of 200 kHz, and it is thus a dead end.
EDGE was also a mode in the IS-136 TDMA system, no longer used.
Evolved EDGE, the latest revision, has peaks of 1 Mbit/s downstream and 400 kbit/s upstream but is not commercially used.
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, created and revised by the 3GPP. The family is a full revision from GSM in terms of encoding methods and hardware, although some GSM sites can be retrofitted to broadcast in the UMTS/W-CDMA format.
W-CDMA is the most common deployment, commonly operated on the 2,100 MHz band. A few others use the 850, 900, and 1,900 MHz bands.
HSPA is an amalgamation of several upgrades to the original W-CDMA standard and offers speeds of 14.4 Mbit/s down and 5.76 Mbit/s up. HSPA is backward-compatible and uses the same frequencies as W-CDMA.
HSPA+, a further revision and upgrade of HSPA, can provide theoretical peak data rates up to 168 Mbit/s in the downlink and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink, using a combination of air interface improvements as well as multi-carrier HSPA and MIMO. Technically though, MIMO and DC-HSPA can be used without the "+" enhancements of HSPA+.
The CDMA2000 system, or IS-2000, including CDMA2000 1x and CDMA2000 High Rate Packet Data (or EVDO), standardized by 3GPP2 (differing from the 3GPP), evolving from the original IS-95 CDMA system, is used especially in North America, China, India, Pakistan, Japan, South Korea, Southeast Asia, Europe, and Africa.
CDMA2000 1x Rev. E has an increased voice capacity (by three times the original amount) compared to Rev. 0 EVDO Rev. B offers downstream peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s while Rev. C enhanced existing and new terminal user experience.

While DECT cordless phones and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulfill the IMT-2000 requirements, they are not usually considered due to their rarity and unsuitability for usage with mobile phones.[9]


The 3G (UMTS and CDMA2000) research and development projects started in 1992. In 1999, ITU approved five radio interfaces for IMT-2000 as a part of the ITU-R M.1457 Recommendation; WiMAX was added in 2007.[10]

There are evolutionary standards (EDGE and CDMA) that are backward-compatible extensions to pre-existing 2G networks as well as revolutionary standards that require all-new network hardware and frequency allocations. The cell phones use UMTS in combination with 2G GSM standards and bandwidths, but do not support EDGE. The latter group is the UMTS family, which consists of standards developed for IMT-2000, as well as the independently developed standards DECT and WiMAX, which were included because they fit the IMT-2000 definition.

While EDGE fulfills the 3G specifications, most GSM/UMTS phones report EDGE ("2.75G") and UMTS ("3G") functionality.[11]


Cellular network standards and generation timeline.
3G technology was the result of research and development work carried out by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the early 1980s. 3G specifications and standards were developed in fifteen years. The technical specifications were made available to the public under the name IMT-2000. The communication spectrum between 400 MHz to 3 GHz was allocated for 3G. Both the government and communication companies approved the 3G standard. The first pre-commercial 3G network was launched by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1998,[12] branded as FOMA. It was first available in May 2001 as a pre-release (test) of W-CDMA technology. The first commercial launch of 3G was also by NTT DoCoMo in Japan on 1 October 2001, although it was initially somewhat limited in scope;[13][14] broader availability of the system was delayed by apparent concerns over its reliability.[15][16][17][18][19]

The first European pre-commercial network was an UMTS network on the Isle of Man by Manx Telecom, the operator then owned by British Telecom, and the first commercial network (also UMTS based W-CDMA) in Europe was opened for business by Telenor in December 2001 with no commercial handsets and thus no paying customers.

The first network to go commercially live was by SK Telecom in South Korea on the CDMA-based 1xEV-DO technology in January 2002. By May 2002, the second South Korean 3G network was by KT on EV-DO and thus the South Koreans were the first to see competition among 3G operators.

The first commercial United States 3G network was by Monet Mobile Networks, on CDMA2000 1x EV-DO technology, but the network provider later shut down operations. The second 3G network operator in the US was Verizon Wireless in July 2002, also on CDMA2000 1x EV-DO. AT&T Mobility was also a true 3G UMTS network, having completed its upgrade of the 3G network to HSUPA.

The first commercial United Kingdom 3G network was started by Hutchison Telecom which was originally behind Orange S.A.[20] In 2003, it announced first commercial third generation or 3G mobile phone network in the UK.

The first pre-commercial demonstration network in the southern hemisphere was built in Adelaide, South Australia, by m.Net Corporation in February 2002 using UMTS on 2100 MHz. This was a demonstration network for the 2002 IT World Congress. The first commercial 3G network was launched by Hutchison Telecommunications branded as Three or "3" in June 2003.[21]

In India, on 11 December 2008, the first 3G mobile and internet services were launched by a state-owned company, Mahanagar Telecom Nigam Limited (MTNL), within the metropolitan cities of Delhi and Mumbai. After MTNL, another state-owned company, Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL), began deploying the 3G networks country-wide.

Emtel launched the first 3G network in Africa.[22]


Videotelephony through cellular networks were made possible using 3G technologies
Japan was one of the first countries to adopt 3G, the reason being the process of 3G spectrum allocation, which in Japan was awarded without much upfront cost. The frequency spectrum was allocated in the US and Europe based on auctioning, thereby requiring a huge initial investment for any company wishing to provide 3G services. European companies collectively paid over 100 billion dollars in their spectrum auctions.[23]

Nepal Telecom adopted 3G Service for the first time in southern Asia. However, its 3G was relatively slow to be adopted in Nepal. In some instances, 3G networks do not use the same radio frequencies as 2G, so mobile operators must build entirely new networks and license entirely new frequencies, especially to achieve high data transmission rates. Other countries' delays were due to the expenses of upgrading transmission hardware, especially for UMTS, whose deployment required the replacement of most broadcast towers. Due to these issues and difficulties with deployment, many carriers could not or delayed the acquisition of these updated capabilities.

In December 2007, 190 3G networks were operating in 40 countries and 154 HSDPA networks were operating in 71 countries, according to the Global Mobile Suppliers Association (GSA). In Asia, Europe, Canada, and the US, telecommunication companies use W-CDMA technology with the support of around 100 terminal designs to operate 3G mobile networks.

The roll-out of 3G networks was delayed by the enormous costs of additional spectrum licensing fees in some countries. The license fees in some European countries were particularly high, bolstered by government auctions of a limited number of licenses and sealed bid auctions, and initial excitement over 3G's potential. This led to a telecoms crash that ran concurrently with similar crashes in the fibre-optic and dot.com fields.

The 3G standard is perhaps well known because of a massive expansion of the mobile communications market post-2G and advances of the consumer mobile phone. An especially notable development during this time is the smartphone (for example, the iPhone, and the Android family), combining the abilities of a PDA with a mobile phone, leading to widespread demand for mobile internet connectivity. 3G has also introduced the term "mobile broadband" because its speed and capability made it a viable alternative for internet browsing, and USB Modems connecting to 3G networks, and now 4G became increasingly common.


By June 2007, the 200 millionth 3G subscriber had been connected of which 10 million were in Nepal and 8.2 million in India. This 200 millionth is only 6.7% of the 3 billion mobile phone subscriptions worldwide. (When counting CDMA2000 1x RTT customers—max bitrate 72% of the 200 kbit/s which defines 3G—the total size of the nearly-3G subscriber base was 475 million as of June 2007, which was 15.8% of all subscribers worldwide.) In the countries where 3G was launched first – Japan and South Korea – 3G penetration is over 70%.[24] In Europe the leading country[when?] for 3G penetration is Italy with a third of its subscribers migrated to 3G. Other leading countries[when?] for 3G use include Nepal, UK, Austria, Australia and Singapore at the 32% migration level.

According to ITU estimates,[25] as of Q4 2012 there were 2096 million active mobile-broadband[vague] subscribers worldwide out of a total of 6835 million subscribers—this is just over 30%. About half the mobile-broadband subscriptions are for subscribers in developed nations, 934 million out of 1600 million total, well over 50%. Note however that there is a distinction between a phone with mobile-broadband connectivity and a smart phone with a large display and so on—although according[26] to the ITU and informatandm.com the US has 321 million mobile subscriptions, including 256 million that are 3G or 4G, which is both 80% of the subscriber base and 80% of the US population, according[25] to ComScore just a year earlier in Q4 2011 only about 42% of people surveyed in the US reported they owned a smart phone. In Japan, 3G penetration was similar at about 81%, but smart phone ownership was lower at about 17%.[25] In China, there were 486.5 million 3G subscribers in June 2014,[27] in a population of 1,385,566,537 (2013 UN estimate).


Since the increasing adoption of 4G networks across the globe, 3G use has been in decline. Several operators around the world have already or are in the process of shutting down their 3G networks (see table below). In several places, 3G is being shut down while its older predecessor 2G is being kept in operation; Vodafone UK is doing this, citing 2G's usefulness as a low-power fallback.[28] EE in the UK, plans to switch off their 3G networks in early 2024.[29] In the US, Verizon shutdown their 3G services on 31 December 2022,[30] T-Mobile shut down Sprint's networks on 31 Mar 2022 and shutdown their main networks on 1 July 2022,[31] and AT&T has done so on 22 February 2022.[32] According to Telenor IoT, 3G sunsets outpace 2G in Europe, where 19 operators in 14 countries plan to phase out 3G by 2025. Only 8 operators in 8 nations are scheduled to shut down their 2G networks by the same year however.[33]

Currently 3G around the world is declining in availability and support. Technology that depends on 3G for usage are becoming inoperable in many places. For example, the European Union plans to ensure that member countries maintain 2G networks as a fallback[citation needed], so 3G devices that are backwards compatible with 2G frequencies can continue to be used. However, in countries that plan to decommission 2G networks or have already done so as well, such as the United States and Singapore, devices supporting only 3G and backwards compatible with 2G are becoming inoperable.[34] As of February 2022, less than 1% of cell phone customers in the United States used 3G; AT&T offered free replacement devices to some customers in the run-up to its shutdown.[35]


It has been estimated that there are almost 8,000 patents declared essential (FRAND) related to the 483 technical specifications which form the 3GPP and 3GPP2 standards.[36][37] Twelve companies accounted in 2004 for 90% of the patents (Qualcomm, Ericsson, Nokia, Motorola, Philips, NTT DoCoMo, Siemens, Mitsubishi, Fujitsu, Hitachi, InterDigital, and Matsushita).

Even then, some patents essential to 3G might not have been declared by their patent holders. It is believed that Nortel and Lucent have undisclosed patents essential to these standards.[37]

Furthermore, the existing 3G Patent Platform Partnership Patent pool has little impact on FRAND protection because it excludes the four largest patent owners for 3G.[38][39]




ITU has not provided a clear[40][vague] definition of the data rate that users can expect from 3G equipment or providers. Thus users sold 3G service may not be able to point to a standard and say that the rates it specifies are not being met. While stating in commentary that "it is expected that IMT-2000 will provide higher transmission rates: a minimum data rate of 2 Mbit/s for stationary or walking users, and 348 kbit/s in a moving vehicle,"[41] the ITU does not actually clearly specify minimum required rates, nor required average rates, nor what modes[clarification needed] of the interfaces qualify as 3G, so various[vague] data rates are sold as '3G' in the market.

In a market implementation, 3G downlink data speeds defined by telecom service providers vary depending on the underlying technology deployed; up to 384 kbit/s for UMTS (WCDMA), up to 7.2 Mbit/sec for HSPA, and a theoretical maximum of 21.1 Mbit/s for HSPA+ and 42.2 Mbit/s for DC-HSPA+ (technically 3.5G, but usually clubbed under the tradename of 3G).[citation needed]


See also: Mobile security § Attacks based on the GSM networks
3G networks offer greater security than their 2G predecessors. By allowing the UE (User Equipment) to authenticate the network it is attaching to, the user can be sure the network is the intended one and not an impersonator.[42]

3G networks use the KASUMI block cipher instead of the older A5/1 stream cipher. However, a number of serious weaknesses in the KASUMI cipher have been identified.

In addition to the 3G network infrastructure security, end-to-end security is offered when application frameworks such as IMS are accessed, although this is not strictly a 3G property.


The bandwidth and location capabilities introduced by 3G networks enabled a wide range of applications that were previously impractical or unavailable on 2G networks. Among the most significant advancements was the ability to perform data-intensive tasks, such as browsing the internet seamlessly while on the move, as well as engaging in other activities that benefited from faster data speeds and enhanced reliability.

Beyond personal communication, 3G networks supported applications in various fields, including medical devices, fire alarms, and ankle monitors. This versatility marked a significant milestone in cellular communications, as 3G became the first network to enable such a broad range of use cases.[43] By expanding its functionality beyond traditional mobile phone usage, 3G set the stage for the integration of cellular networks into a wide array of technologies and services, paving the way for further advancements with subsequent generations of mobile networks.


Both 3GPP and 3GPP2 are working on the extensions to 3G standards that are based on an all-IP network infrastructure and using advanced wireless technologies such as MIMO. These specifications already display features characteristic for IMT-Advanced (4G), the successor of 3G. However, falling short of the bandwidth requirements for 4G (which is 1 Gbit/s for stationary and 100 Mbit/s for mobile operation), these standards are classified as 3.9G or Pre-4G.
3GPP plans to meet the 4G goals with LTE Advanced, whereas Qualcomm has halted UMB development in favour of the LTE family.[44]

On 14 December 2009, TeliaSonera announced in an official press release that "We are very proud to be the first operator in the world to offer our customers 4G services."[45] With the launch of their LTE network, initially they are offering pre-4G (or beyond 3G) services in Stockholm, Sweden and Oslo, Norway.[citation needed]




Country
Status
Network
Shutdown date
Standard
References
Notes

 Albania

One
—N/a
UMTS



Vodafone
2026-04-25
UMTS
[46]
Local shoutdown commenced on 25 Apr 2026.

 Argentina

Personal
TBD
UMTS
[47]
Local shutdowns commenced in Q1 2023.

 Australia
No Service
Optus
2024-10-28
UMTS
[48][49]


Telstra
2024-10-28
UMTS
[50][51][49]
Service on 2100 MHz band ended on 25 Mar 2019.

TPG / Vodafone
2023-12-15
UMTS
[52][53]


 Austria
No Service
3
2024-12-31
UMTS
[54][55]
Local shutdowns commenced on 01 Jan 2024.

A1
2025-06-03
UMTS
[54][56][57]
Local shutdowns commenced on 01 Jan 2024.

Magenta Telekom
2024-06-30
UMTS
[54][58]
Local shutdowns commenced on 01 Jan 2024.

 Belgium
No Service
Orange
2025-07-07
UMTS
[59][60]
Shutdown commenced in Jan 2024.

Proximus
2024-12-31
UMTS
[61][62]


Telenet
2024-09-30
UMTS
[63][64]
Shutdown commenced in Sep 2024.

 Canada

Bell
2027-03-01 (est.)
UMTS
[65][66]


Rogers
TBD
UMTS
[67][68]
1900 MHz shutdown in Jun 2021. Shutdown commenced on 07 Aug 2025.

Telus
2027-03-01 (est.)
UMTS
[65][69]


SaskTel
2027-10-01 (est.)
UMTS
[70]


Videotron
TBD
UMTS
[71]
Local shutdowns commenced on 31 Jul 2025.

Freedom Mobile
TBD
UMTS
[72]
Local shutdowns commenced on 31 Jul 2025.

 China

China Mobile
2019-12-31
TD-SCDMA
[73][74][75][76][77][78][79]
Shutdown commenced on 16 Mar 2016.

China Telecom
2023-12-31
CDMA2000
[80][81][82][83][84][85][86]
CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rev. A/BShutdown commenced on 16 Jun 2020.

LimitedService
China Unicom
2026-12-31 (est.)
UMTS
[87][88][85][89][90][91][92]
2100 MHz: 5 MHz W-CDMAMainly retained for 4G devices without VoLTE capability and IoT.[93]

 Croatia

A1 Telekom
2026-12-31 (est.)
UMTS
[94]
Shutdown commenced in Feb 2026.

HT
2025-02-19
UMTS
[95][96]
Shutdown commenced in Dec 2023.

Active
Telemach
—N/a
UMTS



 Czech Republic
No Service
O2
2021-11-30
UMTS
[97]


T-Mobile
2021-11-30
UMTS
[97]


Vodafone
2021-03-31
UMTS
[98]


 Denmark
No Service
3
2025-12-01
UMTS
[99][100]
Local shutdown commenced in 2019.

TDC
2022-12-31
UMTS
[101]
Local shutdown commenced in 2022.

TT-Netværket(Telenor, Telia)
2023-03-20
UMTS
[102][103]
Service on the 2100 MHz band ended in 2021.Shutdown on the 900 MHz band commenced in summer 2022.

 Estonia
No Service
Elisa
2024-11-26
UMTS
[104]


Tele2
2025-11-30
UMTS
[105][106]


Telia Eesti
2023-12-13
UMTS
[107][108][109][110]


 Finland
No Service
DNA
2024-01-25
UMTS
[111][112][113][114]
Local shutdowns commenced in May 2023.

Elisa
2023-11-30
UMTS
[115]
Local shutdowns commenced in Apr 2023.

Finnish Shared Network [fi]
2024-12
UMTS
[116]
Joint company by Telia and DNA to manage networks in Northern and Eastern Finland.

Telia
2024-10-28
UMTS
[117][118][119]
Local shutdowns commenced on 09 Sep 2023.

 Aland
Active
Ålcom

UMTS
[120]


 France

Bouygues
2029-12-31 (est.)
UMTS
[121]


Free Mobile
2025-12-15
UMTS
[122]
2G/3G-Roaming available via Orange network.

Orange
2028-12-31 (est.)
UMTS



SFR
2028 (est.)
UMTS
[123]


 Germany
No Service
Deutsche Telekom
2021-07-01
UMTS
[124]


O2
2021-12-31
UMTS
[125][126][127]


Vodafone
2021-06-30
UMTS
[128]


 Greece
No Service
Cosmote
2021-12-31
UMTS
[129]


NOVA
2023-03-27
UMTS
[130][131][132][133]


Vodafone
2023-05-31
UMTS
[134]


 Greenland

Tusass
TBD
UMTS
[135]


 Hong Kong
Active
3
—N/a
UMTS




CMHK
2025-06-30
UMTS
[136][137]



CSL
2017-10-31
CDMA2000
[138]
CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rev. A.Service previously provided by PCCW. After acquisition of CSL by HKT,its mobile business PCCW Mobile was merged into CSL.No service for local customers, only served incoming roaming tourists.CSL terminated its CDMA family business two years before its licence expiry,and cdmaOne service has also terminated along with CDMA2000.

Active
CSL
—N/a
UMTS




Smartone
2026-10-09
UMTS
[139]


 Hungary
No Service
Magyar Telekom
2022-06-30
UMTS
[140][141][142]


Yettel Hungary
2023-11-13
UMTS
[140][142][143]


Vodafone Hungary
2023-03-31
UMTS
[144][142]


 Iceland

Nova
2026 H1 (est.)
UMTS
[145][146][147]


Síminn
2026-03 (est.)
UMTS
[146][148]


Sýn
2026-03 (est.)
UMTS
[146][149]


 India

Airtel
2020-03-31
UMTS
[150][151]


BSNL
TBD
UMTS
[152]


Vodafone Idea
2022-10-06
UMTS
[153]
Complete network refarming to 4G/LTE.

 Indonesia
No Service
Smartfren
2017-11-13
CDMA2000
[154]
CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rel. 0, 1xEV-DO Rev. A, EV-DO Rev. B

Telkomsel
2023-06-23
UMTS
[155]

Indosat
2022-12-31
UMTS
[156]


XL Axiata
2023-12-31
UMTS
[157][158][159]
Local shutdowns commenced in Jun 2021.

 Ireland
Active
eir
—N/a
UMTS



Active
3
—N/a
UMTS




Vodafone
2024-10-31
UMTS
[160][161][162][163]
Local shutdowns commenced in Feb 2023.

 Israel


2025-12-31 (est.)

[164]
Per government statement

 Italy
Active
Iliad
—N/a
UMTS
[165]
Service on the 2100 MHz band ended on 07 Aug 2025.


TIM
2022-10-21
UMTS
[166][167][168][169]



Vodafone
2021-02-28
UMTS
[170]


Active
Wind Tre
—N/a
UMTS
[165][171][172]
Service on the 2100 MHz band ended on 07 Aug 2025.Shutdown commenced on 07 Jun 2024.

 Japan
No Service
KDDI
2022-03-31
CDMA2000
[173][174][175]
CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rel. 0, 1xEV-DO Rev. A, EV-DO Rev. B

NTT docomo
2026-03-31
UMTS
[176][177]


Softbank
2024-04-15
UMTS
[178][179][180]


 Kazakhstan

Beeline Kazakhstan
TBD
UMTS
[181]
Local shutdown commenced on 10 Feb 2026.

Tele2
TBD
UMTS
[182][183]
Local shutdown commenced on 28 Mar 2024.

 Latvia
No Service
LMT
2025-03-18
UMTS
[184]


Tele2
2025-03-05
UMTS
[185]


Bitė
2026-03-24
UMTS
[186][187][188]
Shutdown commenced on 25 Jun 2025.

 Lithuania
No Service
Telia
2022-12-15
UMTS
[189][190][191]


Tele2
2025-03-14
UMTS
[192][193]


Bitė
2025-12-12
UMTS
[194][195]


 Luxembourg
No Service
Post Luxembourg
2022-10-31
UMTS
[196]


Orange
2025-12-31
UMTS
[196]


Tango / Proximus
2024-01-31
UMTS
[196][197]


 Macau
No Service
China Telecom
2025-06-04
CDMA2000
[198][199][200]
CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rev. A

CTM
2025-06-04
UMTS
[200]


3
2025-06-04
UMTS
[200]


Smartone
2024-11-11
UMTS
[201]
Smartone ceased operations in Macau and returned its license.

 Malaysia
No Service
Celcom
2021-12-31
UMTS
[202][203]


Maxis
2021-12-31
UMTS
[204]


U Mobile
2021-12-31
UMTS
[204]


Digi
2021-12-31
UMTS
[204][203]


 Moldova

Interdnestrcom
2023-08-01
CDMA2000
[205]


 Montenegro

Crnogorski Telekom
2024-01-22
UMTS
[206][207]


 Netherlands

KPN
2023-05-10
UMTS
[208][209][210]
Local shutdown commenced on 31 Mar 2022.

Odido
2026-08 (est.)
UMTS
[211]


Vodafone
2020-02-04
UMTS
[212]


 New Zealand
No Service
2degrees
2026-02-02
UMTS
[213][214]


One
2026-03-23
UMTS
[215][216][217]
Local shutdown commenced by 31 Mar 2025.

Spark
2026-03-31
UMTS
[218][219]
Local shutdown on 31 Mar 2026.

 North Macedonia

Makedonski Telekom
2024-03-31
UMTS
[220]


 Norway
No Service
Telia
2021-11-11
UMTS
[221]


Telenor
2021-01-31
UMTS
[222]


 Oman

Omantel
TBD
UMTS
[223][224]


 Pakistan

Jazz
2024-11-18
UMTS
[225][226]


 Philippines
No Service
Smart (PLDT)
2025-09-30
UMTS
[227][228][229]
Shutdown commenced in Oct 2020.

Globe
2022-12-31
UMTS
[227][230][231]


 Poland

T-Mobile
2023-04
UMTS
[232][233][234]
Shutdown commenced in Apr 2023.

Orange
2025-12-31
UMTS
[235][236]
Shutdown commenced on 26 Sep 2023.

Play
TBD
UMTS
[237]
Shutdown commenced in Apr 2025.

Plus
TBD
UMTS
[238]
Shutdown commenced in Dec 2025.

 Portugal
No Service
MEO
2024-01-31
UMTS
[239]
Shutdown commenced on 4 Sep 2023.

Vodafone
2024-07-31
UMTS
[240]


NOS
2024-05-31
UMTS
[241]
Shutdown commenced in May 2024.

 Qatar
No Service
Ooredoo
2025-12-31
UMTS
[242][243]


Vodafone
2025-12-31
UMTS
[242][243][244]


 Romania
No Service
Digi
2023-08-29
UMTS
[245]


Orange
2025-12-31
UMTS
[246]
Shutdown commenced in Jun 2024.

Telekom
2023-03-31
UMTS
[247]


Vodafone
2025-07-01
UMTS
[248]


 Russian Federation
LimitedService
MTS
2027 (est.)
UMTS
[249][250][251][252]
Shutdowns completed in Saint-Petersburg in 2024.Shutdowns completed in Moscow and further 203 cities in 2026, and expected country-wide by 2027.

Active
MegaFon
—N/a
UMTS



Active
t2
—N/a
UMTS



LimitedService
Beeline
2028 (est.)
UMTS
[253][254]
Shutdown completed in Moscow and Saint-Petersburg by 2024.Shutdowns completed across further 36 subjects and expected country-wide by 2028.

 Saudi Arabia

stc
2023-09-30
UMTS
[255]


 Singapore
No Service
M1
2024-08-01
UMTS
[256][257]


Singtel
2024-11-01
UMTS
[256][257]


StarHub
2024-11-01
UMTS
[256][257]


 Slovakia
No Service
O2
2025-12-31
UMTS
[258][259]
Local shutdown commenced in Jan 2024.

Orange
2024-02-22
UMTS
[260][261]


Telekom
2023-11-23
UMTS
[262][263]
Local shutdown commenced on 03 Oct 2023.

 Slovenia

A1 Slovenija
2023-06-30
UMTS
[264]


Telekom Slovenije
2022-09-30
UMTS
[265]


Active
Telemach
—N/a
UMTS



 South Africa

MTN
2026-12-31
UMTS
[266]


 South Korea

KT
2012-03-19
CDMA2000
[267][268][269]
CDMA2000 was also referred to as "2G" in South Korea, besides cdmaOne (IS-95).[270]CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rel. 0

Active
KT
—N/a
UMTS




LG U+
2021-06-30
CDMA2000
[271][272][267][273]
CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rev. A, EV-DO Rev. B

SKT
2020-07-27
CDMA2000
[274][269][267][275]
CDMA2000 was also referred to as "2G" in South Korea, besides cdmaOne (IS-95).[270]CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rel. 0

Active
SKT
—N/a
UMTS



 Spain

Movistar
2025-12-31 (est.)
UMTS
[276]


Orange
2027-12-31 (est.)
UMTS
[277]


Vodafone
2024-10-29
UMTS
[278][279]


Yoigo
2025-08-18
UMTS
[280][281]


 Sri Lanka

Airtel
2022-06-12
UMTS
[282]


Dialog Axiata
2023
UMTS
[283][284]


 Sweden
No Service
Net4Mobility (Telenor/Tele2)
2025-12-09
UMTS
[285][286][287]


Telia
2025-12-01
UMTS
[285][288]


Three
2025-12-01
UMTS
[285][289]


  Switzerland

Salt
2026-12-31 (est.)
UMTS
[290]


Sunrise
2025-08-22
UMTS
[291][292][293]
Official shutdown on 10 Jun 2025 (guaranteed availability).

Swisscom
2026-04-07
UMTS
[294][295][296][297][298]
Service on 2100 MHz band ended on 11 Nov 2019.Official shutdown on 31 Dec 2025 (guaranteed availability).

 Taiwan
No Service
Asia Pacific Telecom
2017-12-31
CDMA2000
[299][300]
CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rev. A

Chunghwa Telecom
2018-12-31 (Data)2024-06-30 (Voice)
UMTS
[301][302][303]


Far EasTone
2018-12-31 (Data)2024-06-30 (Voice)
UMTS
[301][302][303]


Taiwan Mobile
2018-12-31 (Data)2024-06-30 (Voice)
UMTS
[301][302][303]


Taiwan Star
2018-12-31 (Data)2024-06-30 (Voice)
UMTS
[301][302][303]


 United Kingdom
No Service
EE
2024-02-25
UMTS
[304][305][306][307]
Shutdown commenced on 17 Jul 2023 in Warrington (Cheshire).[308][309]

Three
2025-11-27
UMTS
[310]


O2
2026-02-25
UMTS
[311][312][313][314][315]
Shutdown commenced in Apr 2025 and concluded with the Greater London areathe last to lose service on 25 Feb 2026.

Vodafone
2024-02-28
UMTS
[316][317][318][319]
Local shutdown commenced in Jun 2023.

 United States Puerto Rico US Virgin Islands
No Service
Appalachian Wireless
2023-01-03
CDMA2000
[320][321][322]
CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rev. A

AT&T
2022-02-22
UMTS
[323][324]


Cellcom
2023-03-31
CDMA2000
[325]


Cellular One of North East Arizona
2023-05-04
UMTS
[326]


Commnet Wireless (Choice)
2022-12-31
CDMA2000
[327]


Liberty
2022-02-22
UMTS
[328]


Silver Star
2022-12-30
CDMA2000
[329][330]
CDMA2000 1X & 1xEV-DO Rev. A

Strata Networks
2022-12-31
CDMA2000
[331]


T-Mobile
2022-07-01
UMTS
[332][333][334][335]


T-Mobile (Sprint)
2022-05-31
CDMA2000
[336][332][333][334][337][338]
CDMA2000 1X, 1X Adv. (Rev.E), 1xEV-DO Rel. 0, 1xEV-DO Rev. AShutdown commenced on 31 Mar 2022.

UScellular
2024-01-14
CDMA2000
[339][340][341]
CDMA2000 1X1xEV-DO (Rel. 0 & Rev. A) shutdown commenced in 2021.

Verizon
2022-12-31
CDMA2000
[342][343][344]
CDMA2000 1X, 1xEV-DO Rel. 0, 1xEV-DO Rev. A

 Vietnam


2028-09 (est.)

[345]
per government statement



List of mobile phone generations
Mobile radio telephone (also known as "0G")
Mobile broadband
Wireless device radiation and health
1G
2G
4G
5G
6G
LTE (telecommunication)


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↑ "3G connectivity from EE to be scrapped in Warrington this summer". Warrington Guardian. 9 June 2023. Retrieved 27 May 2025.
↑ "Three 3G shutdown paves the way for the future". VodafoneThree. 4 December 2025. Retrieved 29 December 2025.
↑ "VMO2 confirms it will complete 3G switch off by end-2025". TeleGeography. 11 September 2023. Retrieved 11 September 2023.
↑ "VM O2 to start 3G switch-off in April". TelcoTitans. 13 January 2025. Retrieved 18 April 2025. Virgin Media O2 (VM O2) has confirmed plans to switch off 3G services from April this year, beginning in the city of Durham.
↑ "Virgin Media O2 3G switch-off nears completion". Comms Business. 18 December 2025. Retrieved 3 January 2026.
↑ "'Shutdown' warning issued to anyone in UK with a really old mobile phone". Express News - Express Newspapers. 5 January 2026. Retrieved 6 January 2026.
↑ "O2 UK coverage map". 25 February 2026. Retrieved 25 February 2026. So long 3G, gone but not forgotten!
↑ "Vodafone UK to begin retiring its 3G network in 2023". TeleGeography. 26 January 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
↑ "Vodafone UK confirms its first 3G network switch-off in two locations". TeleGeography. 13 March 2023. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
↑ "Vodafone UK to begin 3G switch-off in June 2023". TeleGeography. 10 May 2023. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
↑ "Vodafone UK completes 3G shutdown to enhance 4G/5G services". Telecoms Tech News. 28 February 2024. Retrieved 3 March 2024.
↑ "CDMA2000 Operators - Appalachian Wireless". CDG. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
↑ "3G Shutdown Information". Appalachian Wireless. 1 December 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2023.
↑ "Appalachian Wireless to shut down 3G/CDMA service this month". Mountain Top Media. 4 January 2023. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
↑ "AT&T reconfiguring 3G spectrum ahead of February 2022 shutdown". TeleGeography. 21 March 2019. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
↑ "AT&T switches off 3G network". TeleGeography. 23 February 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022.
↑ "Regional US mobile operator Cellcom to switch off 2G on 1 December; 3G was deactivated in March". TeleGeography. 20 September 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
↑ "Cellular One phases out 3G; transitions to VoLTE". TeleGeography. 4 May 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2023.
↑ "Upgrade Your Device Today". Choice Wireless. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
↑ "Liberty to switch off Puerto Rican 3G network on 22 February". TeleGeography. 31 January 2022. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
↑ "CDMA2000 Operators - Silver Star Communications". CDG. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
↑ Albright, Chad (20 April 2022). "Wireless Exit FAQs". Silver Star Communications. Silver Star. Retrieved 25 January 2023.
↑ "STRATA Announces Plans to Retire 3G Network". 5 August 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2023.
1 2 "T-Mobile's 2G, 3G shutdown dates leaked". TeleGeography. 8 February 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
1 2 "T-Mobile US eyes October 2021 W-CDMA shutdown". TeleGeography. 10 August 2021. Retrieved 11 August 2021.
1 2 "T-Mobile US to shut down 3G network on 1 July 2022". TeleGeography. 17 September 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
↑ "Sprint reaches the finishing line: legacy LTE networks switched off by T-Mobile". TeleGeography. 4 July 2022. Retrieved 5 July 2022.
↑ "CDMA2000 Operators - Sprint". CDG. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
↑ "T-Mobile delays CDMA shutdown by three months". TeleGeography. 25 October 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2021.
↑ "T-Mobile US commences CDMA shutdown; expands 5G Home Internet footprint". TeleGeography. 31 March 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022.
↑ "CDMA2000 Operators - U.S. Cellular". CDG. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
↑ "UScellular shuts off some 3G services as it upgrades LTE". Fierce Wireless. 4 October 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2023.
↑ "UScellular to switch off CDMA network on 14 January 2024". TeleGeography. 1 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
↑ "CDMA2000 Operators - Verizon Wireless". CDG. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
↑ "Verizon to shut down 3G CDMA networks on 31 December 2022". TeleGeography. 31 March 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
↑ "Verizon ramps up 5G coverage as 3G shutdown looms". TeleGeography. 6 December 2022. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
↑ "Báo VietnamNet" (in Vietnamese). VietNamNet News. 18 July 2024. Retrieved 4 March 2025.



 Media related to 3G at Wikimedia Commons




Preceded by2nd Generation (2G)
 Mobile Telephony Generations 
Succeeded by4th Generation (4G)






















Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3G&oldid=1369291635"Page 6Mobile phone specification system project

3rd Generation Partnership Project 2Abbreviation3GPP2TypeStandards organization
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) was a collaboration between telecommunications associations to make a globally applicable third generation (3G) mobile phone system specification within the scope of the ITU's IMT-2000 project.  In practice, 3GPP2 was the standardization group for CDMA2000, the set of 3G standards based on the earlier cdmaOne 2G CDMA technology.

The participating associations were ARIB/TTC (Japan), China Communications Standards Association, Telecommunications Industry Association (North America) and Telecommunications Technology Association (South Korea).

The agreement was established in December 1998.

Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) was a 3GPP2 project to develop a fourth-generation successor to CDMA2000.  In November 2008, Qualcomm, UMB's lead sponsor, announced it was ending development of the technology, favoring LTE instead.[1]

3GPP2 should not be confused with 3GPP; 3GPP is the standard body behind the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) that is the 3G upgrade to GSM networks, while 3GPP2 was the standard body behind the competing 3G standard CDMA2000 that is the 3G upgrade to cdmaOne networks that was used mostly in the United States (and to some extent also in Japan, China, Canada, South Korea and India).

GSM/UMTS were the most widespread 2G/3G wireless standards worldwide. Most countries used only the GSM family. A few countries, including China, the United States, Canada, Ukraine, Trinidad and Tobago, India, South Korea and Japan, used both standards.

3GPP2 had its last activity in 2013,[2] and the group has been dormant ever since. The 3GPP2 website was taken offline in 2023, primarily due to CDMA carriers deploying 3GPP's LTE instead of UMB the decade prior and later shutting down CDMA networks making the 3GPP2 redundant and unneeded. However, while the website briefly came back online in 2024, it since went back offline.



↑ "Qualcomm halts UMB project". Reuters. 13 November 2008.
↑ "3GPP2 Technology Webinar". 3GPP2.



3GPP2 Official Web site
About 3GPP2
TIA – U.S. 3GPP2 Standards Developer









This article about wireless technology is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by adding missing information.vte









Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3rd_Generation_Partnership_Project_2&oldid=1361625313"Page 7This article is about the mobile telecommunications standards organizations. For the multimedia formats, see 3GP and 3G2.
Mobile telecommunications standards body

3rd Generation Partnership ProjectAbbreviation3GPPFormation1998; 28 years ago (1998)TypeStandards organizationRegion servedWorldwideWebsitewww.3gpp.org
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) is an umbrella term for a number of standards organizations which develop protocols for mobile telecommunications. Its best known work is the development and maintenance of:[1]
GSM and related 2G, 2.5G, and 2.75G standards, including GPRS and EDGE
UMTS and related 3G standards, including HSPA and HSPA+
LTE and related 4G standards, including LTE Advanced and LTE Advanced Pro
5G NR and related 5G standards, including 5G-Advanced
An evolved IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) developed in an access independent manner

3GPP is a partnership project whose partners are its Organizational Partners (OPs), which are seven national or regional telecommunication standards organizations, and its Market Representation Partners (MRPs), which are a variety of other organizations. 3GPP organizes its work into three different streams: Radio Access Networks (TSG RAN), Services and Systems Aspects (TSG SA), and Core Network and Terminals (TSG CT).[2]

The project was established in December 1998 with the goal of developing a specification for a 3G mobile phone system based on the 2G GSM system, within the scope of the International Telecommunication Union's International Mobile Telecommunications-2000, hence the name 3GPP.[3] It should not be confused with now discontinued 3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2), which shadowed the 3GPP work to continue the development of a competing 3G system, CDMA2000.[4]

The 3GPP administrative support team (known as the "Mobile Competence Centre") is located at the European Telecommunications Standards Institute headquarters in the Sophia Antipolis technology park in France.[5]


The seven 3GPP Organizational Partners are from Asia, Europe and North America. Their aim is to determine the general policy and strategy of 3GPP and perform the following tasks:
The approval and maintenance of the 3GPP scope;
The maintenance of the partnership project description;
Take the decision to create or cease a Technical Specification Groups, and approve their scope and terms of reference;
The approval of organizational partner funding requirements;
The allocation of human and financial resources provided by the organizational partners to the Project Co-ordination Group;
Act as a body of appeal on procedural matters referred to them.

Together with the Market Representation Partners (MRPs), they perform the following tasks:

The maintenance of the partnership project agreement;
The approval of applications for 3GPP partnership;
Take the decision against a possible dissolution of 3GPP.

The Organizational Partners are:[6]

Organizational partners
Organization
Country/region
Website

Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB)JapanARIB

Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions (ATIS)USAATIS

China Communications Standards Association (CCSA)ChinaCCSA

European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)EuropeETSI

Telecommunications Standards Development Society (TSDSI)IndiaTSDSI

Telecommunications Technology Association [ko] (TTA)South KoreaTTA

Telecommunication Technology Committee (TTC)JapanTTC




The 3GPP Organizational Partners can invite a Market Representation Partner to take part in 3GPP; a Market Representation Partner:

Has the ability to offer market advice to 3GPP and to bring into 3GPP a consensus view of market requirements (e.g., services, features and functionality) falling within the 3GPP scope;
Does not have the capability and authority to define, publish and set standards within the 3GPP scope, nationally or regionally;
Has committed itself to all or part of the 3GPP scope;
Has signed the partnership project agreement.

As of January 2025[update], the Market Representation Partners are:[6]

Market representation partners
Organization
Website

5G-ACIA
http://www.5g-acia.org

5G Automotive Association
http://www.5gaa.org/

Deterministic Networking Alliance (5GDNA)
https://www.5gdna.org/

6G Smart Network and Services Industry Association (6G-IA)
https://6g-ia.eu/

5G Slicing Association (5GSA)
https://www.5g-sa.org/

5G Media Action Group (5G-MAG)
http://www.5g-mag.com/

Automotive Edge Computing Consortium (AECC)
https://aecc.org/

Broadband India Forum
http://www.broadbandindiaforum.com/

Cellular Operators Association of India (COAI)
https://www.coai.com

China Society of Automotive Engineers [zh] (CSAE)
http://www.sae-china.org/

CTIA
http://ctia.org/

Global Satellite Operators Association (GSOA)
https://gsoasatellite.com/

Global Certification Forum (GCF)
https://www.globalcertificationforum.org/

Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA)
https://gsacom.com/

GSMA
https://www.gsma.com/

IPV6 Forum
https://www.ipv6forum.com/

International Organization for Marine Aids to Navigation (IALA)
https://www.iala.int/

Next Generation Mobile Networks (NGMN)
https://www.ngmn.org/

Public Safety Communication Europe (PSCE) Forum
http://www.psc-europe.eu/

Small Cell Forum
https://www.smallcellforum.org/

TCCA
https://tcca.info/

TD Industry Alliance
http://www.tdia.cn/

Wireless Broadband Alliance
http://www.wballiance.com/




3GPP standards are structured as Releases. Discussion of 3GPP thus frequently refers to the functionality in one release or another.


Version[7]
Released[8]
Info

Phase 1
1992
GSM features

Phase 2
1995
GSM features, EFR codec,

Release 96
1997 Q1
GSM features, 14.4 kbit/s user data rate,

Release 97
1998 Q1
GSM features, GPRS

Release 98
1999 Q1
GSM features, AMR codec, EDGE, GPRS for PCS1900

Release 99
2000 Q1
Specified the first UMTS 3G networks, incorporating a CDMA air interface[9]

Release 4
2001-06-21
Originally called the Release 2000 – added features including an all-IP core network[10]

Release 5
2002-09-12
Introduced IMS and HSDPA[11]

Release 6
2005-09-28
Integrated operation with Wireless LAN networks and adds HSUPA, MBMS, enhancements to IMS such as Push to Talk over Cellular (PoC), GAN[12]

Release 7
2008-03-13
Focuses on decreasing latency, improvements to QoS and real-time applications such as VoIP.[13] This specification also focus on HSPA+ (High Speed Packet Access Evolution), SIM high-speed protocol and contactless front-end interface (near-field communication enabling operators to deliver contactless services like Mobile Payments), EDGE Evolution.

Release 8
2009-03-12
First LTE release. All-IP network (SAE). New OFDMA, FDE and MIMO based radio interface, not backwards compatible with previous CDMA interfaces. Dual-cell HSDPA. UMTS HNB.

Release 9
2010-03-25
SAES Enhancements, WiMAX and LTE/UMTS Interoperability. Dual-cell HSDPA with MIMO, Dual-cell HSUPA. LTE HeNB. Evolved multimedia broadcast and multicast service (eMBMS).

Release 10
2011-06-08
LTE Advanced fulfilling IMT Advanced 4G requirements. Backwards compatible with release 8 (LTE). Multi-cell HSDPA (4 carriers).

Release 11
2013-03-06
Advanced IP interconnection of services. Service layer interconnection between national operators/carriers as well as third-party application providers. Heterogeneous networks (HetNet) improvements, coordinated multi-point operation (CoMP). In-device co-existence (IDC).

Release 12
2015-03-13
Enhanced small cells (higher order modulation, dual connectivity, cell discovery, self configuration), Carrier aggregation (2 uplink carriers, 3 downlink carriers, FDD/TDD carrier aggregation), MIMO (3D channel modeling, elevation beamforming, massive MIMO), New and enhanced services (cost and range of MTC, D2D communication, eMBMS enhancements)[14]

Release 13
2016-03-11
LTE-Advanced Pro. LTE in unlicensed, LTE enhancements for machine-type communication. Elevation beamforming / full-dimension MIMO, indoor positioning.[15]

Release 14
2017-06-09
Energy efficiency, location services (LCS), mission-critical data over LTE, mission-critical video over LTE, flexible mobile service steering (FMSS), multimedia broadcast supplement for public warning system (MBSP), enhancement for TV services over eMBMS, massive Internet of things, cell broadcast service (CBS)[16]

Release 15
2019-06-07
First 5G NR ("New Radio") release. Support for 5G vehicle-to-x service, IP Multimedia Core Network Subsystem (IMS), future railway mobile communication system[17]

Release 16
2020-07-03
The 5G system – phase 2: 5G enhancements, NR-based access to unlicensed spectrum (NR-U), satellite access[18]

Release 17
2022-06-10
TSG RAN: several features that continue to be important for overall efficiency and performance of 5G NR: MIMO, spectrum sharing enhancements, UE power saving and coverage enhancements. RAN1 will also undertake the necessary study and specification work to enhance the physical layer to support frequency bands up to 71 GHz.

TSG SA groups focused on further enhancements to the 5G system and enablers for new features and services:

Enhanced support of: non-public networks, industrial Internet of things, low complexity NR devices, edge computing in 5GC, access traffic steering, switch and splitting support, network automation for 5G, network slicing, advanced V2X service, multiple USIM support, proximity-based services in 5GS, 5G multicast broadcast services, unmanned aerial systems (UAS), satellite access in 5G, 5GC location services, multimedia priority service...[19]

Release 18
2024-06-21
5G-Advanced. Introducing further machine-learning based techniques at different levels of the wireless network. Edge computing, evolution of IMS multimedia telephony service, smart energy and infrastructure, vehicle-mounted relays, low power high accuracy positioning for industrial IoT scenarios, enhanced access to and support of network slicing, satellite backhaul in 5G...[20][21][19]

Release 19 [22]
2025-12-12
5G-Advanced. AI/ML Air Interface, Ambient IoT, AI/ML for NG-RAN, SON/MDT, Channel modeling. Enhancements to MIMO, duplex, mobility, NTN, XR, and network energy saving.

Release 20
Target 2027 Q2
5G-Advanced and 6G studies.

Each release incorporates hundreds of individual technical specification and technical report documents, each of which may have been through many revisions. Current 3GPP standards incorporate the latest revision of the GSM standards.

The documents are made available without charge on 3GPP's web site. The technical specifications cover not only the radio part ("air interface") and core network, but also billing information and speech coding down to source code level. Cryptographic aspects (such as authentication, confidentiality) are also specified.



The 3GPP specification work is done in Technical Specification Groups (TSGs) and Working Groups (WGs).[23]

There are three Technical Specifications Groups, each of which consists of multiple WGs:

RAN (Radio Access Network): RAN specifies the UTRAN and the E-UTRAN. It is composed of six working groups.

WG
Shorthand
Scope
Specifications

RAN WG1
RAN1
Radio Layer 1 (Physical layer)
List of specs

RAN WG2
RAN2
Radio Layer 2 and Radio Layer 3 Radio Resource Control
List of specs

RAN WG3
RAN3
UTRAN, E-UTRAN, NG-RAN architecture and related network interfaces
List of specs

RAN WG4
RAN4
Radio performance and protocol aspects
List of specs

RAN WG5
RAN5
Mobile terminal conformance testing
List of specs


SA (Service and System Aspects): SA specifies the service requirements and the overall architecture of the 3GPP system. It is also responsible for the coordination of the project. SA is composed of six working groups.

WG
Shorthand
Scope
Specifications

SA WG1
SA1
Services
List of specs

SA WG2
SA2
Architecture
List of specs

SA WG3
SA3
Security
List of specs

SA WG4
SA4
Codec
List of specs

SA WG5
SA5
Management, Orchestration and Charging
List of specs

SA WG6
SA6
Application Enablement and Critical Communication Applications
List of specs


CT (Core Network and Terminals): CT specifies the core network and terminal parts of 3GPP. It includes the core network – terminal layer 3 protocols. It is composed of five working groups.

WG
Shorthand
Scope
Specifications

CT WG1
CT1
User Equipment – Core Network protocols
List of specs

CT WG2
CT2
closed


CT WG3
CT3
Interworking with external networks
List of specs

CT WG4
CT4
Core Network Protocols
List of specs

CT WG5 (closed)
CT5
Open Services Access (OSA)
Succeeded by the Open Mobile Alliance

CT WG6
CT6
Smart Card Application Aspects
List of specs


GERAN (GSM/EDGE Radio Access Network):
The closure of GERAN was announced in January 2016.[24] The specification work on legacy GSM/EDGE system was transferred to RAN WG, RAN6. RAN6 was closed in July 2020 (https://www.3gpp.org/news-events/2128-r6_geran).

The 3GPP structure also includes a Project Coordination Group, which is the highest decision-making body. Its missions include the management of overall timeframe and work progress.



3GPP standardization work is contribution-driven. Companies ("individual members") participate through their membership to a 3GPP organizational partner. As of December 2020, 3GPP is composed of 719 individual members.[25]

Specification work is done at WG and at TSG level:[26]
the 3GPP WGs hold several meetings a year. They prepare and discuss change requests against 3GPP specifications. A change request accepted at WG level is called "agreed".
the 3GPP TSGs hold plenary meetings quarterly. The TSGs can "approve" the change requests that were agreed at WG level. Some specifications are under the direct responsibility of TSGs and therefore, change requests can also be handled at TSG level. The approved change requests are subsequently incorporated in 3GPP specifications.

3GPP follows a three-stage methodology as defined in ITU-T Recommendation I.130:[27]
stage 1 specifications define the service requirements from the user point of view.
stage 2 specifications define an architecture to support the service requirements.
stage 3 specifications define an implementation of the architecture by specifying protocols in details.
Test specifications are sometimes defined as stage 4, as they follow stage 3.

Specifications are grouped into releases. A release consists of a set of internally consistent set of features and specifications.

Timeframes are defined for each release by specifying freezing dates. Once a release is frozen, only essential corrections are allowed (i.e. addition and modifications of functions are forbidden). Freezing dates are defined for each stage.

The 3GPP specifications are transposed into deliverables by the organizational partners.


List of mobile phone generations
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
LTE
3G
IP Multimedia Subsystem
3GP
3GPP2 – The 3GPP's counterpart in the CDMA2000 sphere.
GSM services
LoRaWAN
Telecoms & Internet converged Services & Protocols for Advanced Networks (TISPAN)
Open Mobile Alliance
Service data adaptation protocol
Service layer
European Telecommunications Standards Institute



↑ 3GPP Scope and Objectives, 31 August 2007
↑ "About 3GPP". 3GPP. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
↑ "3GPP Background". 7 June 2000. Archived from the original on 6 July 2000.
↑ "3rd Generation Partnership Project 2". Archived from the original on 23 January 2004. Retrieved 25 November 2012.
↑ "Mobile Competence Centre". 3GPP. Retrieved 10 March 2019.
1 2 "Partners". 3GPP. Retrieved 1 January 2025.
↑ Releases
↑ "3GPP Specifications – Releases (and phases and stages)". Retrieved 16 September 2010.
↑ Overview of 3GPP Release 99, Summary of all Release 99 Features. ETSI Mobile Competence Centre, Version xx/07/04
↑ Overview of 3GPP Release 4, Summary of all Release 4 Features, v.1.1.0 (draft) ETSI Mobile Competence Centre 2004
↑ Summary of all Release 5 Features, ETSI Mobile Competence Centre, Version 9 September 2003
↑ Overview of 3GPP Release 6, Summary of all Release 6 Features, Version TSG #33, ETSI Mobile Competence Centre 2006
↑ Review of the Work Plan at Plenaries #31, 3GPP, SP-060232 3GPP TSG SA#31 Sanya, 13–16 March 2006
↑ "Highlights of 3GPP Release 12". Retrieved 20 November 2014.
↑ "Release 13 priorities". Retrieved 20 November 2014.
↑ "3GPP Portal > Specifications". portal.3gpp.org. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
↑ "3GPP Portal > Specifications". portal.3gpp.org. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
↑ "3GPP Portal > Specifications". portal.3gpp.org. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
1 2 "5G evolution toward 5G advanced: An overview of 3GPP releases 17 and 18". Ericsson. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
↑ "Release 18". 3gpp.org. Retrieved 25 November 2021.
↑ "5G-Advanced's system architecture begins taking shape at 3GPP". Nokia. Retrieved 25 November 2021.
↑ "Release 19". 3GPP. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
↑ "Specification Groups". Archived from the original on 9 May 2011. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
↑ closure of GERAN
↑ 3GPP membership
↑ 3GPP TR 21.900 Technical Specification Group working methods
↑ ITU-T Recommendation I.130



3GPP website
3GPP Standards List of Acronyms & Terminology
3GPP freely published, detailed technical specifications
3GPP releases descriptions
ETSI GSM UMTS 3GPP Numbering Cross Reference
TS/TR
specification numbering
Tool for visualizing multiple inter-related 3gpp standards
Tool for visualizing, decoding, encoding network protocol messages defined by 3gpp
LTE-3GPP.info: online 3GPP messages decoder fully supporting Rel.15


















Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3GPP&oldid=1368374186"Page 8This article is about the multimedia formats. For the mobile telecommunications standards organizations, see 3GPP.
Multimedia file format families
3GPFilename extension
.3gp, .3gppInternet media type
video/3gpp, audio/3gppUniform Type Identifier (UTI)public.3gppDeveloped by3GPPInitial release4 April 2003; 23 years ago (2003-04-04)[1]Latest release17.0.0[1]17 April 2022; 4 years ago (2022-04-17) Type of formatContainer formatContainer foraudio, video, textExtended fromMPEG-4 Part 12Open format?YesFree format?No
3G2Filename extension
.3g2, .3gp2, .3gpp2Internet media type
video/3gpp2, audio/3gpp2Uniform Type Identifier (UTI)public.3gpp2Developed by3GPP2Initial releaseJanuary 2004; 22 years ago (2004-01)[2]Latest releaseC.S0050-B v1.0[2]September 2024; 1 year ago (2024-09) Type of formatContainer formatContainer foraudio, video, textExtended fromMPEG-4 Part 12Open format?YesFree format?yes

3GP (3GPP file format) is a digital multimedia container format defined by the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) for 3G UMTS multimedia services, largely based on MPEG-4 Part 12. A 3GP container may consist of H.263 or H.264 video codecs, and AMR or AAC-LC audio codecs.

3G2 (3GPP2 file format) is a multimedia container format defined by the 3GPP2 for 3G CDMA2000 multimedia services. It is very similar to the 3GP file format but consumes less space and bandwidth, and has some extensions and limitations in comparison to 3GP.



3GP is defined in the ETSI 3GPP technical specification.[1] 3GP is a required file format for video and associated speech/audio media types and timed text in ETSI 3GPP technical specifications for IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS) and Transparent end-to-end Packet-switched Streaming Service (PSS).[3][4][5][6]

3G2 is defined in the 3GPP2 technical specification.[2]


The factual accuracy of parts of this article (those related to 3GP codec list (see release 12 of 2016 p.65)) may be compromised due to out-of-date information. The reason given is: 3GP has expanded codec lists while 3G2 has stagnated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.  (February 2021)
Relations between ISO Base Media File Format, MP4 File Format, 3GPP file format and 3GPP2 file format. Based on the 3GPP2 technical specification published on 18 May 2007.[7]
The 3GP and 3G2 file formats are both structurally based on the ISO base media file format defined in ISO/IEC 14496-12 – MPEG-4 Part 12,[8][9][10] but older versions of the 3GP file format did not use some of its features.[7] 3GP and 3G2 are container formats similar to MPEG-4 Part 14 (MP4), which is also based on MPEG-4 Part 12. The 3GP and 3G2 file format were designed to decrease storage and bandwidth requirements to accommodate mobile phones. They are good for lower end smartphones for faster streaming & download.

3GP and 3G2 are similar standards, but with some differences:
3GPP file format was designed for GSM-based phones and may have the filename extension .3gp
3GPP2 file format was designed for CDMA-based phones and may have the filename extension .3g2

Some cell phones use the .mp4 extension for 3GP video.


The 3GP file format stores video streams as MPEG-4 Part 2, H.263, or MPEG-4 Part 10 (AVC/H.264), and audio streams as AMR-NB, AMR-WB, AMR-WB+, AAC-LC, HE-AAC v1 or Enhanced aacPlus (HE-AAC v2). 3GPP allowed use of AMR and H.263 codecs in the ISO base media file format (MPEG-4 Part 12), because 3GPP specified the usage of the Sample Entry and template fields in the ISO base media file format as well as defining new boxes to which codecs refer. These extensions were registered by the registration authority for code-points in ISO base media file format ("MP4 Family" files).[11][12] 

For the storage of MPEG-4 media specific information in 3GP files, the 3GP specification refers to MP4 and the AVC file format, which are also based on the ISO base media file format. The MP4 and the AVC file format specifications described usage of MPEG-4 content in the ISO base media file format.[8]

A 3GP file is always big-endian, storing and transferring the most significant bytes first. [citation needed]


The 3G2 file format can store the same video streams and most of the audio streams used in the 2007 3GP file format. In addition, 3G2 stores audio streams as EVRC, EVRC-B, EVRC-WB, 13K (QCELP), SMV or VMR-WB, which was specified by 3GPP2 for use in ISO base media file format.[12] The 3G2 specification also defined some enhancements to 3GPP Timed Text. 3G2 file format does not store Enhanced aacPlus (HE-AAC v2) and AMR-WB+ audio streams.[7] For the storage of MPEG-4 media (AAC audio, MPEG-4 Part 2 video, MPEG-4 Part 10 – H.264/AVC) in 3G2 files, the 3G2 specification refers to the MP4 file format and the AVC file format specification, which described usage of this content in the ISO base media file format. For the storage of H.263 and AMR content 3G2 specification refers to the 3GP file format specification.[7]


Most 3G capable mobile phones support the playback and recording of video in 3GP format (memory, maximum filesize for playback and recording, and resolution limits exist and vary).[citation needed]
Some newer/higher-end phones without 3G capabilities may also playback and record in this format (again, with said limitations).[citation needed]
Audio imported from CD onto a PlayStation 3 when it is set to encode to the MPEG-4 AAC format copies onto USB devices in the 3GP format. [citation needed]
The Nintendo 3DS used 3GP technology to play YouTube videos.
Apple iDevices used to support files for playback only as passthrough files, hence no editing ability, but since iOS 9 this has been deprecated meaning files of this format have to be manually converted to H.264.[citation needed]


When transferred to a computer, 3GP movies can be viewed on Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS, and the various Linux-based operating systems; on the former two with Windows Media Player[13] and Apple QuickTime[14] respectively (their built-in media players), and on all three with VLC media player.[15] Programs such as Media Player Classic, K-Multimedia Player, Totem, RealPlayer, MPlayer, and GOM Player can also be used.

3GP and 3G2 files can be encoded and decoded with open source software FFmpeg.[16] Media tags can be read and written on Linux, macOS and Windows using the open source AtomicParsley command-line utility.[17]



computer programming portal
Comparison of (audio/video) container formats
SIF (Source Input Format)
CIF (Common Intermediate Format)


1 2 3 ETSI 3GPP 3GPP TS 26.244; Transparent end-to-end packet switched streaming service (PSS); 3GPP file format (3GP) Retrieved on 2009-06-02.
1 2 3 "3GPP2 C.S0050, 3GPP2 File Formats for Multimedia Services, File Format for Multimedia Services for cdma2000". 3GPP2. 2003. Archived from the original on 2009-08-07. Retrieved 2009-06-12.
↑ ETSI (2009-04) ETSI TS 126 234 V8.2.0 (2009-04); 3GPP TS 26.234; Transparent end-to-end Packet-switched Streaming Service (PSS); Protocols and codecs Page 58. Retrieved on 2009-06-02.
↑ ETSI (2009-01) ETSI TS 126 140 V8.0.0 (2009-01); 3GPP TS 26.140; Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS); Media formats and codes Page 11. Retrieved on 2009-06-02.
↑ "ETSI TS 126 346 V8.3.0 (2009-06); 3GPP TS 26.346; Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS); Protocols and codecs". ETSI. June 2009. p. 85. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
↑ ETSI (2009-01) ETSI TS 126 141 V8.0.0 (2009-01); 3GPP TS 26.141; IP Multimedia System (IMS) Messaging and Presence; Media formats and codecs Page 10. Retrieved on 2009-06-02.
1 2 3 4 "3GPP2 C.S0050-B Version 1.0, 3GPP2 File Formats for Multimedia Services" (PDF). 3GPP2. 18 May 2007. pp. 67, 68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-12.
1 2 "3GPP TS 26.244; Transparent end-to-end packet switched streaming service (PSS); 3GPP file format (3GP)" (PDF). ETSI 3GPP. 2008-12-11. p. 9. Retrieved 2009-05-30. 

↑ "ISO Base Media File Format white paper – Proposal". April 2006. Archived from the original on 2008-07-14. Retrieved 2009-12-26.
↑ "ISO Base Media File Format white paper – Proposal". Chiariglione. October 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-26.
↑ "ISO/IEC 14496-12:2008, Information technology -- Coding of audio-visual objects -- Part 12: ISO base media file format" (PDF). International Organization for Standardization. 2008. p. 95. Retrieved 2009-05-30. 

1 2 "Registered types – Codecs". Registration authority for code-points in "MP4 Family" files – mp4ra.org. 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-04-19. Retrieved 2009-05-31.
↑ "File types supported by Windows Media Player". Microsoft. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
↑ "What's New in QuickTime 6.3 + 3GPP". Apple, Inc. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
↑ "VLC Media Player features". VLC. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
↑ "FFmpeg, General Documentation, Supported File Formats and Codecs". FFmpeg. Retrieved 2009-06-11.
↑ "AtomicParseley". Wez Furlong. Retrieved 2024-06-24.



3GPP codecs specifications; 3G and beyond / GSM, 26 series
3GPP file format (3GP); 3GPP TS 26.244; Transparent end-to-end packet switched streaming service (PSS) - specification
3GPP2 specifications Archived 2009-08-07 at the Wayback Machine
3GPP2 File Formats for Multimedia Services; 3GPP2 C.S0050-B Version 1.0 - specification
RFC 3839, MIME Type Registrations for 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Multimedia files
RFC 4393, MIME Type Registrations for 3GPP2 Multimedia Files
RFC 4281, The Codecs Parameter for "Bucket" Media Types
3GP & 3G2 File Formats















Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3GP_and_3G2&oldid=1367213540"Page 9This article is about the multimedia formats. For the mobile telecommunications standards organizations, see 3GPP.
Multimedia file format families
3GPFilename extension
.3gp, .3gppInternet media type
video/3gpp, audio/3gppUniform Type Identifier (UTI)public.3gppDeveloped by3GPPInitial release4 April 2003; 23 years ago (2003-04-04)[1]Latest release17.0.0[1]17 April 2022; 4 years ago (2022-04-17) Type of formatContainer formatContainer foraudio, video, textExtended fromMPEG-4 Part 12Open format?YesFree format?No
3G2Filename extension
.3g2, .3gp2, .3gpp2Internet media type
video/3gpp2, audio/3gpp2Uniform Type Identifier (UTI)public.3gpp2Developed by3GPP2Initial releaseJanuary 2004; 22 years ago (2004-01)[2]Latest releaseC.S0050-B v1.0[2]September 2024; 1 year ago (2024-09) Type of formatContainer formatContainer foraudio, video, textExtended fromMPEG-4 Part 12Open format?YesFree format?yes

3GP (3GPP file format) is a digital multimedia container format defined by the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) for 3G UMTS multimedia services, largely based on MPEG-4 Part 12. A 3GP container may consist of H.263 or H.264 video codecs, and AMR or AAC-LC audio codecs.

3G2 (3GPP2 file format) is a multimedia container format defined by the 3GPP2 for 3G CDMA2000 multimedia services. It is very similar to the 3GP file format but consumes less space and bandwidth, and has some extensions and limitations in comparison to 3GP.



3GP is defined in the ETSI 3GPP technical specification.[1] 3GP is a required file format for video and associated speech/audio media types and timed text in ETSI 3GPP technical specifications for IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS), Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS) and Transparent end-to-end Packet-switched Streaming Service (PSS).[3][4][5][6]

3G2 is defined in the 3GPP2 technical specification.[2]


The factual accuracy of parts of this article (those related to 3GP codec list (see release 12 of 2016 p.65)) may be compromised due to out-of-date information. The reason given is: 3GP has expanded codec lists while 3G2 has stagnated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.  (February 2021)
Relations between ISO Base Media File Format, MP4 File Format, 3GPP file format and 3GPP2 file format. Based on the 3GPP2 technical specification published on 18 May 2007.[7]
The 3GP and 3G2 file formats are both structurally based on the ISO base media file format defined in ISO/IEC 14496-12 – MPEG-4 Part 12,[8][9][10] but older versions of the 3GP file format did not use some of its features.[7] 3GP and 3G2 are container formats similar to MPEG-4 Part 14 (MP4), which is also based on MPEG-4 Part 12. The 3GP and 3G2 file format were designed to decrease storage and bandwidth requirements to accommodate mobile phones. They are good for lower end smartphones for faster streaming & download.

3GP and 3G2 are similar standards, but with some differences:
3GPP file format was designed for GSM-based phones and may have the filename extension .3gp
3GPP2 file format was designed for CDMA-based phones and may have the filename extension .3g2

Some cell phones use the .mp4 extension for 3GP video.


The 3GP file format stores video streams as MPEG-4 Part 2, H.263, or MPEG-4 Part 10 (AVC/H.264), and audio streams as AMR-NB, AMR-WB, AMR-WB+, AAC-LC, HE-AAC v1 or Enhanced aacPlus (HE-AAC v2). 3GPP allowed use of AMR and H.263 codecs in the ISO base media file format (MPEG-4 Part 12), because 3GPP specified the usage of the Sample Entry and template fields in the ISO base media file format as well as defining new boxes to which codecs refer. These extensions were registered by the registration authority for code-points in ISO base media file format ("MP4 Family" files).[11][12] 

For the storage of MPEG-4 media specific information in 3GP files, the 3GP specification refers to MP4 and the AVC file format, which are also based on the ISO base media file format. The MP4 and the AVC file format specifications described usage of MPEG-4 content in the ISO base media file format.[8]

A 3GP file is always big-endian, storing and transferring the most significant bytes first. [citation needed]


The 3G2 file format can store the same video streams and most of the audio streams used in the 2007 3GP file format. In addition, 3G2 stores audio streams as EVRC, EVRC-B, EVRC-WB, 13K (QCELP), SMV or VMR-WB, which was specified by 3GPP2 for use in ISO base media file format.[12] The 3G2 specification also defined some enhancements to 3GPP Timed Text. 3G2 file format does not store Enhanced aacPlus (HE-AAC v2) and AMR-WB+ audio streams.[7] For the storage of MPEG-4 media (AAC audio, MPEG-4 Part 2 video, MPEG-4 Part 10 – H.264/AVC) in 3G2 files, the 3G2 specification refers to the MP4 file format and the AVC file format specification, which described usage of this content in the ISO base media file format. For the storage of H.263 and AMR content 3G2 specification refers to the 3GP file format specification.[7]


Most 3G capable mobile phones support the playback and recording of video in 3GP format (memory, maximum filesize for playback and recording, and resolution limits exist and vary).[citation needed]
Some newer/higher-end phones without 3G capabilities may also playback and record in this format (again, with said limitations).[citation needed]
Audio imported from CD onto a PlayStation 3 when it is set to encode to the MPEG-4 AAC format copies onto USB devices in the 3GP format. [citation needed]
The Nintendo 3DS used 3GP technology to play YouTube videos.
Apple iDevices used to support files for playback only as passthrough files, hence no editing ability, but since iOS 9 this has been deprecated meaning files of this format have to be manually converted to H.264.[citation needed]


When transferred to a computer, 3GP movies can be viewed on Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS, and the various Linux-based operating systems; on the former two with Windows Media Player[13] and Apple QuickTime[14] respectively (their built-in media players), and on all three with VLC media player.[15] Programs such as Media Player Classic, K-Multimedia Player, Totem, RealPlayer, MPlayer, and GOM Player can also be used.

3GP and 3G2 files can be encoded and decoded with open source software FFmpeg.[16] Media tags can be read and written on Linux, macOS and Windows using the open source AtomicParsley command-line utility.[17]



computer programming portal
Comparison of (audio/video) container formats
SIF (Source Input Format)
CIF (Common Intermediate Format)


1 2 3 ETSI 3GPP 3GPP TS 26.244; Transparent end-to-end packet switched streaming service (PSS); 3GPP file format (3GP) Retrieved on 2009-06-02.
1 2 3 "3GPP2 C.S0050, 3GPP2 File Formats for Multimedia Services, File Format for Multimedia Services for cdma2000". 3GPP2. 2003. Archived from the original on 2009-08-07. Retrieved 2009-06-12.
↑ ETSI (2009-04) ETSI TS 126 234 V8.2.0 (2009-04); 3GPP TS 26.234; Transparent end-to-end Packet-switched Streaming Service (PSS); Protocols and codecs Page 58. Retrieved on 2009-06-02.
↑ ETSI (2009-01) ETSI TS 126 140 V8.0.0 (2009-01); 3GPP TS 26.140; Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS); Media formats and codes Page 11. Retrieved on 2009-06-02.
↑ "ETSI TS 126 346 V8.3.0 (2009-06); 3GPP TS 26.346; Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS); Protocols and codecs". ETSI. June 2009. p. 85. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
↑ ETSI (2009-01) ETSI TS 126 141 V8.0.0 (2009-01); 3GPP TS 26.141; IP Multimedia System (IMS) Messaging and Presence; Media formats and codecs Page 10. Retrieved on 2009-06-02.
1 2 3 4 "3GPP2 C.S0050-B Version 1.0, 3GPP2 File Formats for Multimedia Services" (PDF). 3GPP2. 18 May 2007. pp. 67, 68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-12.
1 2 "3GPP TS 26.244; Transparent end-to-end packet switched streaming service (PSS); 3GPP file format (3GP)" (PDF). ETSI 3GPP. 2008-12-11. p. 9. Retrieved 2009-05-30. 

↑ "ISO Base Media File Format white paper – Proposal". April 2006. Archived from the original on 2008-07-14. Retrieved 2009-12-26.
↑ "ISO Base Media File Format white paper – Proposal". Chiariglione. October 2009. Retrieved 2009-12-26.
↑ "ISO/IEC 14496-12:2008, Information technology -- Coding of audio-visual objects -- Part 12: ISO base media file format" (PDF). International Organization for Standardization. 2008. p. 95. Retrieved 2009-05-30. 

1 2 "Registered types – Codecs". Registration authority for code-points in "MP4 Family" files – mp4ra.org. 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-04-19. Retrieved 2009-05-31.
↑ "File types supported by Windows Media Player". Microsoft. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
↑ "What's New in QuickTime 6.3 + 3GPP". Apple, Inc. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
↑ "VLC Media Player features". VLC. Retrieved 2020-07-25.
↑ "FFmpeg, General Documentation, Supported File Formats and Codecs". FFmpeg. Retrieved 2009-06-11.
↑ "AtomicParseley". Wez Furlong. Retrieved 2024-06-24.



3GPP codecs specifications; 3G and beyond / GSM, 26 series
3GPP file format (3GP); 3GPP TS 26.244; Transparent end-to-end packet switched streaming service (PSS) - specification
3GPP2 specifications Archived 2009-08-07 at the Wayback Machine
3GPP2 File Formats for Multimedia Services; 3GPP2 C.S0050-B Version 1.0 - specification
RFC 3839, MIME Type Registrations for 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Multimedia files
RFC 4393, MIME Type Registrations for 3GPP2 Multimedia Files
RFC 4281, The Codecs Parameter for "Bucket" Media Types
3GP & 3G2 File Formats















Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3GP_and_3G2&oldid=1367213540"Page 10
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