Russia - Wikipedia (/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.parsoid.styles%7Cext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediaBadges.ulsV2%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.skinning.content.parsoid%7Cmediawiki.skins.legacy%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022) (/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022) (//upload.wikimedia.org) (/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png) (/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico) (/w/rest.php/v1/search) (Wikipedia (en)) (//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en) (Wikipedia Atom feed) (/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom) (//meta.wikimedia.org)  (auth.wikimedia.org)   Jump to content (Main menu)  Main menu  Main menu move to sidebar hide  Navigation  (/wiki/Main_Page) (Visit the main page [z]) Main page   (/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents) (Guides to browsing Wikipedia) Contents   (/wiki/Portal:Current_events) (Articles related to current events) Current events   (/wiki/Special:Random) (Visit a randomly selected article [x]) Random article   (/wiki/Wikipedia:About) (Learn about Wikipedia and how it works) About Wikipedia   (//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us) (How to contact Wikipedia) Contact us      Contribute  (/wiki/Help:Contents) (Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia) Help   (/wiki/Help:Introduction) (Learn how to edit Wikipedia) Learn to edit   (/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal) (The hub for editors) Community portal   (/wiki/Special:RecentChanges) (A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]) Recent changes   (/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard) (Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia) Upload file   (/wiki/Special:SpecialPages) (A list of all special pages [q]) Special pages           (/wiki/Main_Page) () (Wikipedia) (The Free Encyclopedia)    (/wiki/Special:Search) (Search Wikipedia [f])  Search  (Search Wikipedia) (Search Wikipedia [f])   (Special:Search)  Search           (Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color)  Appearance         (https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en) Donate   (/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Russia) (You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory) Create account   (/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Russia) (You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. 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[o])  Log in                  Contents move to sidebar hide  (Top)   1 Etymology     2 History    Toggle History subsection  2.1 Early history     2.2 Kievan Rus'     2.3 Grand Principality of Moscow     2.4 Tsardom of Russia     2.5 Imperial Russia   2.5.1 Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts     2.5.2 Great liberal reforms and capitalism     2.5.3 Constitutional monarchy and World War       2.6 Revolution and civil war     2.7 Soviet Union   2.7.1 Command economy and Soviet society     2.7.2 Stalinism and modernisation     2.7.3 World War II and United Nations     2.7.4 Superpower and Cold War     2.7.5 Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development     2.7.6 Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation     2.7.7 Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty       2.8 Independent Russian Federation   2.8.1 Transition to a market economy and political crises     2.8.2 Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation     2.8.3 Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding     2.8.4 Russo-Ukrainian war and 2022 invasion         3 Geography    Toggle Geography subsection  3.1 Climate     3.2 Biodiversity       4 Government and politics    Toggle Government and politics subsection  4.1 Political history     4.2 Political divisions     4.3 Foreign relations     4.4 Military     4.5 Law, corruption and crime     4.6 Human rights       5 Economy    Toggle Economy subsection  5.1 Transport and energy     5.2 Agriculture and fishery     5.3 Science and technology   5.3.1 Space exploration       5.4 Tourism       6 Demographics    Toggle Demographics subsection  6.1 Language     6.2 Religion     6.3 Education     6.4 Health       7 Culture    Toggle Culture subsection  7.1 Holidays     7.2 Art and architecture     7.3 Music     7.4 Literature and philosophy     7.5 Mass media and cinema     7.6 Cuisine     7.7 Sports       8 See also     9 Notes     10 References    Toggle References subsection  10.1 Citations     10.2 Sources       11 Further reading     12 External links           (Table of Contents)  Toggle the table of contents      Russia    326 languages  (https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D3%99%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0) (Урыстәыла – Abkhazian) Аԥсшәа   (https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Acehnese) Acèh   (https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%B5) (Урысые – Adyghe) Адыгабзэ   (featured article) (https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusland) (Rusland – Afrikaans) Afrikaans   (https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Alemannic) Alemannisch   (https://alt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) (Россия – Southern Altai) Алтай тил   (https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A9%E1%88%B2%E1%8B%AB) (ሩሲያ – Amharic) አማርኛ   (https://ami.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Amis) Pangcah   (https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Aragonese) Aragonés   (https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Old English) Ænglisc   (https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%E1%BB%8D%E1%B9%A3ia) (Rọṣia – Obolo) Obolo   (https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8) (रूस – Angika) अंगिका   (featured article) (https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7) (روسيا – Arabic) العربية   (https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%AA%DC%98%DC%A3%DC%9D%DC%90) (ܪܘܣܝܐ – Aramaic) ܐܪܡܝܐ   (https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7) (روسيا – Moroccan Arabic) الدارجة   (https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7) (روسيا – Egyptian Arabic) مصرى   (https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9B%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE) (ৰাছিয়া – Assamese) অসমীয়া   (https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Asturian) Asturianu   (https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russie) (Russie – Atikamekw) Atikamekw   (https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) (Россия – Avaric) Авар   (https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossia) (Rossia – Kotava) Kotava   (https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8) (रूस – Awadhi) अवधी   (https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiya) (Rusiya – Aymara) Aymar aru   (https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiya) (Rusiya – Azerbaijani) Azərbaycanca   (https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87) (روسیه – South Azerbaijani) تۆرکجه   (https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D3%99%D1%81%D3%99%D0%B9_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D2%BB%D1%8B) (Рәсәй Федерацияһы – Bashkir) Башҡортса   (https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Balinese) Basa Bali   (https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Bavarian) Boarisch   (https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ros%C4%97j%C4%97) (Rosėjė – Samogitian) Žemaitėška   (https://bbc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Batak Toba) Batak Toba   (https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusya) (Rusya – Central Bikol) Bikol Central   (https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%8F) (Расея – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)) Беларуская (тарашкевіца)   (https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F) (Расія – Belarusian) Беларуская   (https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruslan) (Ruslan – Betawi) Betawi   (https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) (Русия – Bulgarian) Български   (https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8) (रूस – Bhojpuri) भोजपुरी   (https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasia) (Rasia – Bislama) Bislama   (https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Banjar) Banjar   (https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%9E%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%91%E1%80%AE) (ရသျားခမ်းထီ – Pa'O) ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ   (https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risila) (Risila – Bambara) Bamanankan   (https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE) (রাশিয়া – Bangla) বাংলা   (https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A8%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BD%B4%E0%BC%8D) (ཨུ་རུ་སུ། – Tibetan) བོད་ཡིག   (https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE) (রাশিয়া – Bishnupriya) বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী   (https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Breton) Brezhoneg   (https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusija) (Rusija – Bosnian) Bosanski   (https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Batak Mandailing) Batak Mandailing   (https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%91%E1%A8%98%E1%A8%94%E1%A8%97%E1%A8%95) (ᨑᨘᨔᨗᨕ – Buginese) Basa Ugi   (https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81) (Оросой холбоото улас – Russia Buriat) Буряад   (https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BAssia) (Rússia – Catalan) Català   (https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Chavacano) Chavacano de Zamboanga   (https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B2%CC%A4-l%C3%B2%CC%A4-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%86) (Ngò̤-lò̤-sṳ̆ – Mindong) 閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄   (https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8) (Росси – Chechen) Нохчийн   (https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusya) (Rusya – Cebuano) Cebuano   (https://ch.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Chamorro) Chamoru   (https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%B2%E1%8F%82%E1%8E%A2) (ᏲᏂᎢ – Cherokee) ᏣᎳᎩ   (https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Cheyenne) Tsetsêhestâhese   (https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D9%88%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7) (ڕووسیا – Central Kurdish) کوردی   (https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Corsican) Corsu   (https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiye) (Rusiye – Crimean Tatar) Qırımtatarca   (https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusko) (Rusko – Czech) Čeština   (https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusk%C3%B4) (Ruskô – Kashubian) Kaszëbsczi   (https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%A1%D1%81%D1%97%EA%99%97) (Рѡсїꙗ – Church Slavic) Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ   (https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%C3%A7%C3%A7%D0%B5%D0%B9_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9%C4%95) (Раççей Федерацийĕ – Chuvash) Чӑвашла   (https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwsia) (Rwsia – Welsh) Cymraeg   (recommended article) (https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusland) (Rusland – Danish) Dansk   (https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Dagbani) Dagbanli   (https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – German) Deutsch   (https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruccia) (Ruccia – Dinka) Thuɔŋjäŋ   (https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusya) (Rusya – Dimli) Zazaki   (https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusojska) (Rusojska – Lower Sorbian) Dolnoserbski   (https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Central Dusun) Kadazandusun   (https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8) (रूस – Doteli) डोटेली   (https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%83%DE%AB%DE%90%DE%A9%DE%88%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%A7%DE%8C%DE%B0) (ރޫސީވިލާތް – Divehi) ދިވެހިބަސް   (https://dz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A4%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%92%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8D) (རཱ་ཤི་ཡ་རྒྱལ་ཁབ། – Dzongkha) ཇོང་ཁ   (https://ee.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Ewe) Eʋegbe   (https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1) (Ρωσία – Greek) Ελληνικά   (https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossia) (Rossia – Emiliano-Romagnolo) Emiliàn e rumagnòl   (https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusio) (Rusio – Esperanto) Esperanto   (https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Spanish) Español   (https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venemaa) (Venemaa – Estonian) Eesti   (https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errusia) (Errusia – Basque) Euskara   (https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Extremaduran) Estremeñu   (https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87) (روسیه – Persian) فارسی   (https://ff.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roosiya) (Roosiya – Fula) Fulfulde   (https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ven%C3%A4j%C3%A4) (Venäjä – Finnish) Suomi   (https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinnemaa) (Vinnemaa – Võro) Võro   (https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Fijian) Na Vosa Vakaviti   (https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Faroese) Føroyskt   (https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russie) (Russie – French) Français   (https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Arpitan) Arpetan   (https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruslun) (Ruslun – Northern Frisian) Nordfriisk   (https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russie) (Russie – Friulian) Furlan   (https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusl%C3%A2n) (Ruslân – Western Frisian) Frysk   (https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_R%C3%BAis) (An Rúis – Irish) Gaeilge   (https://gag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiya) (Rusiya – Gagauz) Gagauz   (https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF) (俄羅斯 – Gan) 贛語   (https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risi) (Risi – Guianan Creole) Kriyòl gwiyannen   (https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Ruis) (An Ruis – Scottish Gaelic) Gàidhlig   (https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Galician) Galego   (https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%DB%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%87) (رۊسيه – Gilaki) گیلکی   (https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rr%C3%BAsia) (Rrúsia – Guarani) Avañe'ẽ   (https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8) (रूस – Goan Konkani) गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni   (https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Gorontalo) Bahasa Hulontalo   (https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8D%83%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BD%F0%90%8C%B3) (𐍂𐌿𐍃𐌰𐌻𐌰𐌽𐌳 – Gothic) 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺   (https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Ghanaian Pidgin) Ghanaian Pidgin   (https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%BE) (રશિયા – Gujarati) ગુજરાતી   (https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Gun) Gungbe   (https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yn_Roosh) (Yn Roosh – Manx) Gaelg   (https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasha) (Rasha – Hausa) Hausa   (https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%C3%B2-l%C3%B2-s%E1%B9%B3%CC%82) (Ngò-lò-sṳ̂ – Hakka Chinese) 客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî   (https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%ABsia) (Rūsia – Hawaiian) Hawaiʻi   (https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%94) (רוסיה – Hebrew) עברית   (https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8) (रूस – Hindi) हिन्दी   (https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Fiji Hindi) Fiji Hindi   (https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusija) (Rusija – Croatian) Hrvatski   (https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruska) (Ruska – Upper Sorbian) Hornjoserbsce   (https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risi) (Risi – Haitian Creole) Kreyòl ayisyen   (https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oroszorsz%C3%A1g) (Oroszország – Hungarian) Magyar   (https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6) (Ռուսաստան – Armenian) Հայերեն   (https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%A1) (Ռուսիա – Western Armenian) Արեւմտահայերէն   (https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Interlingua) Interlingua   (https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Iban) Jaku Iban   (https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Indonesian) Bahasa Indonesia   (https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Interlingue) Interlingue   (https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mpaghara_Russia) (Mpaghara Russia – Igbo) Igbo   (https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruusiq_(nuna)) (Uruusiq (nuna) – Inupiaq) Iñupiatun   (https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Iloko) Ilokano   (https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5) (Эрсече – Ingush) ГӀалгӀай   (https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Ido) Ido   (https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BAssland) (Rússland – Icelandic) Íslenska   (https://isv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0) (Росија – Interslavic) Medžuslovjansky   (https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Italian) Italiano   (https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%85%E1%93%9B%E1%93%B4) (ᐅᓛᓴ – Inuktitut) ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut   (https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A2) (ロシア – Japanese) 日本語   (https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosha) (Rosha – Jamaican Creole English) Patois   (https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/rukygu%27e) (rukygu'e – Lojban) La .lojban.   (https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruslan) (Ruslan – Javanese) Jawa   (https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98) (რუსეთი – Georgian) ქართული   (https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossiya) (Rossiya – Kara-Kalpak) Qaraqalpaqsha   (https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusya) (Rusya – Kabyle) Taqbaylit   (https://kaj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roshya) (Roshya – Jju) Jju   (https://kbd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9) (Урысей – Kabardian) Адыгэбзэ   (https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruusii) (Ruusii – Kabiye) Kabɩyɛ   (https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roshya) (Roshya – Tyap) Tyap   (https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Kongo) Kongo   (https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiya) (Rusiya – Komering) Kumoring   (https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racia) (Racia – Kikuyu) Gĩkũyũ   (https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9) (Ресей – Kazakh) Қазақша   (https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8) (រុស្ស៊ី – Khmer) ភាសាខ្មែរ   (https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE) (ರಷ್ಯಾ – Kannada) ಕನ್ನಡ   (https://knc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Central Kanuri) Yerwa Kanuri   (https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9F%AC%EC%8B%9C%EC%95%84) (러시아 – Korean) 한국어   (https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BC%D1%83) (Рочму – Komi-Permyak) Перем коми   (https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B9) (Росей – Karachay-Balkar) Къарачай-малкъар   (https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%97%D8%B3) (روٗس – Kashmiri) کٲشُر   (https://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Colognian) Ripoarisch   (https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BBsya) (Rûsya – Kurdish) Kurdî   (https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BC%D1%83) (Рочму – Komi) Коми   (https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russi) (Russi – Cornish) Kernowek   (https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) (Орусия – Kyrgyz) Кыргызча   (https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Latin) Latina   (https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Ladino) Ladino   (https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Luxembourgish) Lëtzebuergesch   (https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%8C%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82) (Аьрасат – Lak) Лакку   (https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%82) (Урусат – Lezghian) Лезги   (https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Lingua Franca Nova) Lingua Franca Nova   (https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwasha) (Rwasha – Ganda) Luganda   (https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3slandj) (Róslandj – Limburgish) Limburgs   (https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B9scia) (Rùscia – Ligurian) Ligure   (featured article) (https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruscia) (Ruscia – Ladin) Ladin   (https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BCssia) (Rüssia – Lombard) Lombard   (https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus%C3%AD) (Rusí – Lingala) Lingála   (https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%8D) (ປະເທດລັດເຊຍ – Lao) ລາວ   (https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusija) (Rusija – Lithuanian) Lietuvių   (https://ltg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%ABveja) (Krīveja – Latgalian) Latgaļu   (good article) (https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krievija) (Krievija – Latvian) Latviešu   (https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Madurese) Madhurâ   (https://mag.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8) (रूस – Magahi) मगही   (https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B8) (रूस – Maithili) मैथिली   (https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Banyumasan) Basa Banyumasan   (https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80) (Россия мастор – Moksha) Мокшень   (https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosia) (Rosia – Malagasy) Malagasy   (https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9) (Россий – Eastern Mari) Олык марий   (https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%ABhia) (Rūhia – Māori) Māori   (https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Minangkabau) Minangkabau   (https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0) (Русија – Macedonian) Македонски   (https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF) (റഷ്യ – Malayalam) മലയാളം   (featured article) (https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81) (Орос – Mongolian) Монгол   (https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%8C%EA%AF%A5) (ꯔꯁꯤꯌꯥ – Manipuri) ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ   (https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AC) (ရုရှာ – Mon) ဘာသာမန်   (https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE) (रशिया – Marathi) मराठी   (https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9) (Россий – Western Mari) Кырык мары   (https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Malay) Bahasa Melayu   (https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russja) (Russja – Maltese) Malti   (https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BAssia) (Rússia – Mirandese) Mirandés   (https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6) (ရုရှားနိုင်ငံ – Burmese) မြန်မာဘာသာ   (https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80) (Россия Мастор – Erzya) Эрзянь   (https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3) (اوروس – Mazanderani) مازِرونی   (https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Neapolitan) Napulitano   (https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruslaand) (Ruslaand – Low Saxon) Nedersaksies   (https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Low German) Plattdüütsch   (https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8) (रुस – Nepali) नेपाली   (https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8) (रुस – Newari) नेपाल भाषा   (https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Nias) Li Niha   (https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusland) (Rusland – Dutch) Nederlands   (https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Norwegian Nynorsk) Norsk nynorsk   (featured article) (https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Norwegian Bokmål) Norsk bokmål   (https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Novial) Novial   (https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%8C%DF%AC%DF%99%DF%8C%DF%AC%DF%9B%DF%8C%DF%AB) (ߌ߬ߙߌ߬ߛߌ߫ – N’Ko) ߒߞߏ   (https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russie) (Russie – Norman) Nouormand   (https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Northern Sotho) Sesotho sa Leboa   (https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%CA%BC%C3%A9%C3%A9%CA%BC_%C5%81ich%C3%AD%C3%AD%CA%BC%C3%AD_Bik%C3%A9yah) (Biʼééʼ Łichííʼí Bikéyah – Navajo) Diné bizaad   (https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Nyanja) Chi-Chewa   (https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Occitan) Occitan   (https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ven%27a) (Ven'a – Livvi-Karelian) Livvinkarjala   (https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raashiyaa) (Raashiyaa – Oromo) Oromoo   (https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%8B%E0%AC%B7%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%86) (ଋଷିଆ – Odia) ଓଡ଼ିଆ   (https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%C3%A6%D1%80%C3%A6%D1%81%D0%B5) (Уæрæсе – Ossetic) Ирон   (https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%B8) (ਰੂਸ – Punjabi) ਪੰਜਾਬੀ   (https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Pangasinan) Pangasinan   (https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Pampanga) Kapampangan   (https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Papiamento) Papiamentu   (https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russie) (Russie – Picard) Picard   (https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossia) (Rossia – Nigerian Pidgin) Naijá   (https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Pennsylvania German) Deitsch   (https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russland) (Russland – Palatine German) Pälzisch   (https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosja) (Rosja – Polish) Polski   (https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Piedmontese) Piemontèis   (https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3) (روس – Western Punjabi) پنجابی   (https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%AF%CE%B1) (Ρουσία – Pontic) Ποντιακά   (https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%87) (روسیه – Pashto) پښتو   (featured article) (https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BAssia) (Rússia – Portuguese) Português   (https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rususuyu) (Rususuyu – Quechua) Runa Simi   (https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Romansh) Rumantsch   (https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusiya) (Rusiya – Vlax Romani) Romani čhib   (https://rn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uburusiya) (Uburusiya – Rundi) Ikirundi   (https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Romanian) Română   (https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arusia) (Arusia – Aromanian) Armãneashti   (https://roa-tara.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russie) (Russie – Tarantino) Tarandíne   (https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) (Россия – Russian) Русский   (https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F) (Росія – Rusyn) Русиньскый   (https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uburusiya) (Uburusiya – Kinyarwanda) Ikinyarwanda   (https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE) (रास्या – Sanskrit) संस्कृतम्   (https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%B0) (Арассыыйа – Yakut) Саха тыла   (https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F) (ᱨᱟᱥᱤᱭᱟ – Santali) ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ   (https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B9ssia) (Rùssia – Sardinian) Sardu   (featured article) (https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Sicilian) Sicilianu   (https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roushie) (Roushie – Scots) Scots   (https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3) (روس – Sindhi) سنڌي   (https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruo%C5%A1%C5%A1a) (Ruošša – Northern Sami) Davvisámegiella   (https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus%C3%AFi) (Rusïi – Sango) Sängö   (https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusija) (Rusija – Serbo-Croatian) Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски   (https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusya) (Rusya – Tachelhit) Taclḥit   (https://shn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%B0%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%82%88%E1%80%9E%E1%80%BB%E1%82%83%E1%80%B8) (မိူင်းရတ်ႈသျႃး – Shan) တႆး   (https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%94%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80) (රුසියාව – Sinhala) සිංහල   (https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Simple English) Simple English   (https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusko) (Rusko – Slovak) Slovenčina   (https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3) (روس – Saraiki) سرائیکی   (https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusija) (Rusija – Slovenian) Slovenščina   (https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Samoan) Gagana Samoa   (https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruo%C5%A1%C5%A1%C3%A2) (Ruoššâ – Inari Sami) Anarâškielâ   (https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhashiya) (Rhashiya – Shona) ChiShona   (https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruushka) (Ruushka – Somali) Soomaaliga   (https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Albanian) Shqip   (https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0) (Русија – Serbian) Српски / srpski   (https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusland) (Rusland – Sranan Tongo) Sranantongo   (https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRashiya) (IRashiya – Swati) SiSwati   (https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashea) (Rashea – Southern Sotho) Sesotho   (https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruslound) (Ruslound – Saterland Frisian) Seeltersk   (https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusia) (Rusia – Sundanese) Sunda   (https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryssland) (Ryssland – Swedish) Svenska   (https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urusi) (Urusi – Swahili) Kiswahili   (https://syl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%A0%9E%EA%A0%A5%EA%A0%8D%EA%A0%A4%EA%A0%80) (ꠞꠥꠍꠤꠀ – Sylheti) ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ   (https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusyjo) (Rusyjo – Silesian) Ślůnski   (https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Sakizaya) Sakizaya   (https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE) (உருசியா – Tamil) தமிழ்   (https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Atayal) Tayal   (https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B7%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE) (ರಷ್ಯಾ – Tulu) ತುಳು   (https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B7%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE) (రష్యా – Telugu) తెలుగు   (https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BAsia) (Rúsia – Tetum) Tetun   (https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) (Русия – Tajik) Тоҷикӣ   (https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2) (ประเทศรัสเซีย – Thai) ไทย   (https://ti.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A9%E1%88%B5%E1%8B%AB) (ሩስያ – Tigrinya) ትግርኛ   (https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russi%C3%BDa) (Russiýa – Turkmen) Türkmençe   (https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusya) (Rusya – Tagalog) Tagalog   (https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urusij%C9%99t) (Urusijət – Talysh) Tolışi   (https://tn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Tswana) Setswana   (https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C5%ABsia) (Lūsia – Tongan) Lea faka-Tonga   (https://tok.wikipedia.org/wiki/ma_Losi) (ma Losi – Toki Pona) Toki pona   (https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasia) (Rasia – Tok Pisin) Tok Pisin   (https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusya) (Rusya – Turkish) Türkçe   (https://trv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Taroko) Seediq   (https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhaxiya) (Rhaxiya – Tsonga) Xitsonga   (featured article) (https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) (Россия – Tatar) Татарча / tatarça   (good article) (https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Tumbuka) ChiTumbuka   (https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) (Russia – Twi) Twi   (https://ty.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%ABtia) (Rūtia – Tahitian) Reo tahiti   (https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) (Россия – Tuvinian) Тыва дыл   (https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) (Россия – Udmurt) Удмурт   (https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%8A%DB%95) (روسىيە – Uyghur) ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche   (https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D1%8F) (Росія – Ukrainian) Українська   (https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3) (روس – Urdu) اردو   (https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossiya) (Rossiya – Uzbek) Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча   (https://ve.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashia) (Rashia – Venda) Tshivenda   (https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B9sia) (Rùsia – Venetian) Vèneto   (https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ven%C3%A4ma) (Venäma – Veps) Vepsän kel’   (https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nga) (Nga – Vietnamese) Tiếng Việt   (https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusland) (Rusland – West Flemish) West-Vlams   (https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus%C3%A4n) (Rusän – Volapük) Volapük   (https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%BBsseye) (Rûsseye – Walloon) Walon   (https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusya) (Rusya – Waray) Winaray   (https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riisi) (Riisi – Wolof) Wolof   (https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF) (俄罗斯 – Wu) 吴语   (https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B8%D1%86%D3%99%D0%BD) (Орсин Ниицән – Kalmyk) Хальмг   (https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRashiya) (IRashiya – Xhosa) IsiXhosa   (https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98) (რუსეთი – Mingrelian) მარგალური   (https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%93) (רוסלאנד – Yiddish) ייִדיש   (https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%E1%BB%8D%CC%81s%C3%AD%C3%A0) (Rọ́síà – Yoruba) Yorùbá   (https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngozlozswh) (Ngozlozswh – Zhuang) Vahcuengh   (https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rusland) (Rusland – Zeelandic) Zeêuws   (https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%A2%E2%B4%B0) (ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight) ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ   (https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF) (俄羅斯 – Literary Chinese) 文言   (https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C5%8D%CD%98-se-a) (Lō͘-se-a – Minnan) 閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gí   (https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BE%85%E6%96%AF) (俄羅斯 – Cantonese) 粵語   (https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%84%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF) (俄罗斯 – Chinese) 中文   (https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRashiya) (IRashiya – Zulu) IsiZulu    (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q159#sitelinks-wikipedia) (Edit interlanguage links) Edit links       (/wiki/Russia) (View the content page [c]) Article   (/wiki/Talk:Russia) (Discuss improvements to the content page [t]) Talk      English         (/wiki/Russia) Read   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You can view its source [e])  View source   (/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=history) (Past revisions of this page [h])  View history      General  (/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Russia) (List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]) What links here   (/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Russia) (Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]) Related changes   (//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard) (Upload files [u]) Upload file   (/w/index.php?title=Russia&oldid=1371272337) (Permanent link to this revision of this page) Permanent link   (/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=info) (More information about this page) Page information   (/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Russia&id=1371272337&wpFormIdentifier=titleform) (Information on how to cite this page) Cite this page   (/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FRussia) Get shortened URL   (/w/index.php?title=Russia&useparsoid=0) Switch to legacy parser      Print/export  (/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Russia&action=show-download-screen) (Download this page as a PDF file) Download as PDF   (/w/index.php?title=Russia&printable=yes) (Printable version of this page [p]) Printable version      In other projects  (https://abstract.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q159) Abstract Wikipedia   (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F) Wikimedia Commons   (https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Category:Russia) Wikinews   (https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Russia) Wikiquote   (https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Russia) Wikivoyage   (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q159) (Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]) Wikidata item                Appearance move to sidebar hide       (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system) (Geographic coordinate system) Coordinates : (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818)  (https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Russia&params=66_N_94_E_scale:100000000) (Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location) 66°N 94°E    /   (Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location) 66°N 94°E  / 66; 94     (./Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#extended) (This article is extended-confirmed-protected.) (Extended-protected article)       From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia    Country in Eastern Europe and North Asia (./Category:Articles_with_short_description)  (./Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata)    This article is about the country. For other uses, see (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_(disambiguation)) (Russia (disambiguation)) Russia (disambiguation) .   (./Category:Wikipedia_extended-confirmed-protected_pages#Russia)  (./Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_move-protected_pages#Russia)    (./Category:Use_British_English_from_September_2022)  (./Category:All_Wikipedia_articles_written_in_British_English)   (./Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_January_2026)    Russian Federation (Russian-language text) Российская Федерация  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Russia.svg) (Flag of Russia) (Flag of Russia)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_Russia) (Flag of Russia) Flag   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Russian_Federation.svg) (Coat of arms of Russia) (Coat of arms of Russia)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Russia) (Coat of arms of Russia) Coat of arms      Anthem:   (Russian-language text) Государственный гимн Российской Федерации  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)    (Russian-language romanization) Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii   "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Anthem_of_the_Russian_Federation) (State Anthem of the Russian Federation) State Anthem of the Russian Federation "   (العربية ‪(ar)‬)  (беларуская ‪(be)‬)  (বাংলা ‪(bn)‬)  (català ‪(ca)‬)  (Cebuano ‪(ceb)‬)  (dansk ‪(da)‬)  (Deutsch ‪(de)‬)  (English ‪(en)‬)  (español ‪(es)‬)  (فارسی ‪(fa)‬)  (suomi ‪(fi)‬)  (français ‪(fr)‬)  (हिन्दी ‪(hi)‬)  (Bahasa Indonesia ‪(id)‬)  (日本語 ‪(ja)‬)  (Kumoring ‪(kge)‬)  (한국어 ‪(ko)‬)  (Bahasa Melayu ‪(ms)‬)  (polski ‪(pl)‬)  (português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬)  (português ‪(pt)‬)  (русский ‪(ru)‬)  (संस्कृतम् ‪(sa)‬)  (Simple English ‪(simple)‬)  (ไทย ‪(th)‬)  (Tagalog ‪(tl)‬)  (Türkçe ‪(tr)‬)  (українська ‪(uk)‬)  (Tiếng Việt ‪(vi)‬)  (中文（简体） ‪(zh-hans)‬)  (中文（新加坡） ‪(zh-sg)‬)  (中文（臺灣） ‪(zh-tw)‬)  (中文 ‪(zh)‬)        (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russian_Federation_(orthographic_projection)_-_All_Territorial_Disputes.svg)         Recognised territory (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      Claimed but internationally unrecognised[ a]     Show globe  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_Russia-en.svg)    Show region with labels  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe-Russia.svg)    Show map of Europe     Capitaland largest city  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow) (Moscow) Moscow  (https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Russia&params=55_45_21_N_37_37_02_E_type:city) (Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location) 55°45′21″N 37°37′02″E    /   (Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location) 55.75583°N 37.61722°E  / 55.75583; 37.61722     (./Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas)     Official languages (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language) (Russian language) Russian [ 3]      Recognised regional languages  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Russia#Official_languages) (Languages of Russia) Various   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_group) (Ethnic group) Ethnic groups (2021; including (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea) (Crimea) Crimea )[ 4]       71.7% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians) (Russians) Russian  3.2% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatars) (Tatars) Tatar  1.1% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashkirs) (Bashkirs) Bashkir  1.1% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechens) (Chechens) Chechen  11.3% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Russia) (Ethnic groups in Russia) other  11.6% not reported     Religion (2026)[ 5]      (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409)   65% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church) (Russian Orthodox Church) Eastern Orthodoxy  22% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreligion_in_Russia) (Irreligion in Russia) no religion  9% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Russia) (Islam in Russia) Islam  3% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Russia) (Religion in Russia) other religion  1% not answered     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonym) (Demonym) Demonym  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_people) (Russian people) Russian   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Russia) (Politics of Russia) Government  Federal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-presidential_system) (Semi-presidential system) semi-presidential republic under an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarian) (Authoritarian) authoritarian government  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234)     • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Russia) (President of Russia) President   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin) (Vladimir Putin) Vladimir Putin   • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Russia) (Prime Minister of Russia) Prime Minister   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Mishustin) (Mikhail Mishustin) Mikhail Mishustin     Legislature (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Assembly_(Russia)) (Federal Assembly (Russia)) Federal Assembly   • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_house) (Upper house) Upper house   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_Council_(Russia)) (Federation Council (Russia)) Federation Council   • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_house) (Lower house) Lower house   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Duma) (State Duma) State Duma   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia) (History of Russia) Formation   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1358620234)     • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rus') (Kievan Rus') Kievan Rus'    882  • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal) (Vladimir-Suzdal) Vladimir-Suzdal    1125  • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Moscow) (Grand Principality of Moscow) Grand Principality of Moscow   1263  • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia) (Tsardom of Russia) Tsardom of Russia   16 January 1547  • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire) (Russian Empire) Russian Empire   2 November 1721  • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_Revolution) (February Revolution) Monarchy abolished    15 March 1917  • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union) (Soviet Union) Soviet Union    30 December 1922  • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_State_Sovereignty_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic) (Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) Declaration of State Sovereignty    12 June 1990  • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belovezha_Accords) (Belovezha Accords) Belovezha Accords ratifed    12 December 1991  • (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia) (Constitution of Russia) Current constitution   12 December 1993    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Russia) (Geography of Russia) Area    • Total  17,098,246 km2 (6,601,670 sq mi)[ 6]    (within internationally recognised borders) ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area) (List of countries and dependencies by area) 1st )  • Water (%)  13[ 7]    (including swamps)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Russia) (Demographics of Russia) Population   • 2025 estimate  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409)   (Neutral decrease) (Neutral decrease)    146,028,325[ 8]     (including Crimea)[ 9]      (Neutral decrease) (Neutral decrease)    143,569,049 (excluding Crimea)    ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population) (List of countries and dependencies by population) 9th )  • Density  8.4/km2 (21.8/sq mi) ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density) (List of countries and dependencies by population density) 187th )  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product) (Gross domestic product) GDP  ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity) (Purchasing power parity) PPP )  2026 estimate  • Total  (Increase) (Increase)    $7.525 trillion[ 10]     ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)) (List of countries by GDP (PPP)) 4th )  • Per capita  (Increase) (Increase)    $52,479[ 10]     ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)_per_capita) (List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita) 43rd )  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product) (Gross domestic product) GDP  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488)  (nominal)  2026 estimate  • Total  (Increase) (Increase)    $2.656 trillion[ 10]     ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)) (List of countries by GDP (nominal)) 9th )  • Per capita  (Increase) (Increase)    $18,525[ 10]     ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)_per_capita) (List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita) 66th )  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gini_coefficient) (Gini coefficient) Gini  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488)  (2020)  (Positive decrease) (Positive decrease)     36.0[ 11]     medium inequality    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index) (Human Development Index) HDI  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488)  (2023)  (Increase) (Increase)     0.832[ 12]     (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494)  very high   ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index) (List of countries by Human Development Index) 64th )  Currency (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_ruble) (Russian ruble) Russian ruble ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/₽) (₽) ₽ ) ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_4217) (ISO 4217) RUB )  Time zone (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time) (Coordinated Universal Time) UTC (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_in_Russia) (Time in Russia) +2 to +12    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Russia) (Telephone numbers in Russia) Calling code  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_numbers_in_Russia) (Telephone numbers in Russia) +7   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166) (ISO 3166) ISO 3166 code  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166-2:RU) (ISO 3166-2:RU) RU   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain) (Country code top-level domain) Internet TLD  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.ru) (.ru) .ru  (Russian-language text) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.рф) (.рф) .рф   (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)         Russia ,[ b]    or the Russian Federation ,[ c]    [ d]    is a country in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe) (Eastern Europe) Eastern Europe and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Asia) (North Asia) North Asia . It is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_area) (List of countries and dependencies by area) largest country in the world , spanning (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_in_Russia) (Time in Russia) eleven time zones and sharing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borders_of_Russia) (Borders of Russia) land borders with fourteen countries .[ e]    With a population of over 140 million, Russia is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_population) (List of European countries by population) most populous country in Europe and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population) (List of countries and dependencies by population) ninth-most populous in the world . It is a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization_by_sovereign_state) (Urbanization by sovereign state) highly urbanised country, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow) (Moscow) Moscow , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_metropolitan_areas_in_Europe) (List of metropolitan areas in Europe) most populous metropolitan area in Europe , is the capital and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Russia_by_population) (List of cities and towns in Russia by population) largest city of Russia , while (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg) (Saint Petersburg) Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_and_culture_in_Saint_Petersburg) (Society and culture in Saint Petersburg) a major cultural centre . Human settlement on modern Russian territory dates back to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic) (Lower Paleolithic) Lower Paleolithic . The emergence of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Slavs) (East Slavs) East Slavs as a prominent group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD led to the establishment of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rus') (Kievan Rus') Kievan Rus' in the 9th century, which adopted (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church) (Eastern Orthodox Church) Orthodox Christianity from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire) (Byzantine Empire) Byzantine Empire in 988. Following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disintegration_of_Kievan_Rus') (Disintegration of Kievan Rus') disintegration of Kievan Rus' in the 12th century, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Moscow) (Grand Principality of Moscow) Grand Principality of Moscow became the dominant (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_principality) (Russian principality) Russian principality and led the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gathering_of_the_Russian_lands) (Gathering of the Russian lands) unification of Russian lands during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_medieval_period) (Late medieval period) late medieval period , culminating in the formation of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia) (Tsardom of Russia) Tsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had expanded vastly through (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia) (Russian conquest of Siberia) conquest , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation) (Annexation) annexation , and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_explorers) (List of Russian explorers) efforts of Russian explorers . It was proclaimed as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire) (Russian Empire) Russian Empire in 1721, which became the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_empires) (List of largest empires) third-largest empire in history. The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution) (Russian Revolution) Russian Revolution of 1917 led to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_Revolution) (February Revolution) the abolition of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_monarchy) (Russian monarchy) Russian monarchy and the creation of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_SFSR) (Russian SFSR) Russian SFSR , the first (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_state) (Socialist state) socialist state . Following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Civil_War) (Russian Civil War) Russian Civil War , Russia became the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union) (Republics of the Soviet Union) largest and principal constituent of the newly established (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union) (Soviet Union) Soviet Union in 1922. Amidst (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_Soviet_Union) (Industrialization in the Soviet Union) rapid industrialisation in the 1930s, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excess_mortality_in_the_Soviet_Union_under_Joseph_Stalin) (Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin) millions died under (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin) (Joseph Stalin) Joseph Stalin . The Soviet Union played (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II) (Soviet Union in World War II) a decisive role for the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II) (Allies of World War II) Allies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)) (Eastern Front (World War II)) Eastern Front . During the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War) (Cold War) Cold War , it emerged as a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superpower) (Superpower) superpower and competed with the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States) (United States) United States for (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitical_dominance) (Geopolitical dominance) geopolitical dominance . The Soviet era saw some of the most significant (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation) (Timeline of Russian innovation) Russian technological achievements , including the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_1) (Sputnik 1) first human-made satellite and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_1) (Vostok 1) first human expedition into outer space .  In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union) (Dissolution of the Soviet Union) dissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. Following (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis) (1993 Russian constitutional crisis) a constitutional crisis in 1993, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia) (Constitution of Russia) a new constitution was adopted, establishing a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-presidential_system) (Semi-presidential system) semi-presidential republic . Since the turn of the century, Russia's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Russia) (Politics of Russia) political system has been dominated by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin) (Vladimir Putin) Vladimir Putin , under (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_under_Vladimir_Putin) (Russia under Vladimir Putin) whose leadership it has experienced (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_backsliding) (Democratic backsliding) democratic backsliding , transforming into an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianism) (Authoritarianism) authoritarian regime . Russia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_the_Russian_Federation) (Military history of the Russian Federation) has been militarily involved in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Russia#Russian_Federation_(1991–present)) (List of wars involving Russia) numerous conflicts , including (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War) (Russo-Georgian War) its war with Georgia in 2008 and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_War) (Russo-Ukrainian War) its war with Ukraine since 2014, which in the latter has involved the internationally unrecognised (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Russian_annexation_of_Crimea) (2014 Russian annexation of Crimea) annexation of Crimea in 2014 and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts) (Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts) four additional regions following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine) 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , resulting in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_war_(2022–present)) (Russo-Ukrainian war (2022–present)) a full-scale war . Russia is generally considered a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_power) (Great power) great power and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_power) (Regional power) wields significant regional influence , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction) (Russia and weapons of mass destruction) possessing the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and having the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_military_expenditures) (List of countries by military expenditures) third-highest military expenditure in the world. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Russia) (Economy of Russia) Its economy ranks among the largest in the world by both (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)) (List of countries by GDP (nominal)) nominal GDP and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)) (List of countries by GDP (PPP)) PPP-adjusted GDP , relying on its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_as_an_energy_superpower) (Russia as an energy superpower) vast mineral and energy resources , mainly (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_production) (List of countries by oil production) oil and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_production) (List of countries by natural gas production) natural gas . Russia continues to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_rankings_of_Russia) (International rankings of Russia) rank very low in measurements of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy) (Democracy) democracy , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Russia) (Human rights in Russia) human rights and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_freedom_in_Russia) (Media freedom in Russia) media freedom , while (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_in_Russia) (Corruption in Russia) having high levels of corruption . As the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession,_continuity_and_legacy_of_the_USSR) (Succession, continuity and legacy of the USSR) successor state of the Soviet Union , it (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_and_the_United_Nations) (Russia and the United Nations) retains its seat as a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council) (Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council) permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and is a member state of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Russia#International_membership) (Foreign relations of Russia) several international organisations . Russia is also home to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Russia) (List of World Heritage Sites in Russia) 32 UNESCO (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site) (World Heritage Site) World Heritage Sites .   Etymology  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_Rus',_Russia_and_Ruthenia) (Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia) Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia  According to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary) (Oxford English Dictionary) Oxford English Dictionary  , the English name Russia first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Latin_language) (Medieval Latin language) Medieval Latin :  Russia (./Category:Articles_containing_Medieval_Latin-language_text)  , used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from (Medieval Latin-language text) Russi  ,  ' the Russians ' (./Category:Articles_containing_Medieval_Latin-language_text)  and the suffix (Medieval Latin-language text) (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-ia#Latin) (wikt:-ia) -ia   (./Category:Articles_containing_Medieval_Latin-language_text)  .[ 15]    [ 16]     There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjective (Russian-language text) русский  ,  (Russian-language romanisation) russkiy  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  refers to ethnic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians) (Russians) Russians . The adjective (Russian-language text) российский  ,  (Russian-language romanisation) rossiiskiy  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  denotes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_citizenship_law) (Russian citizenship law) Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun (Russian-language text) россиянин  ,  (Russian-language romanisation) rossiianyn  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  , in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.[ 17]    [ 18]     The oldest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym) (Endonym and exonym) endonyms used were Rus'   ((Russian-language text) Русь  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  ) and the "Russian land" ((Russian-language text) Русская земля  ,  (Russian-language romanization) Russkaya zemlya  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  ).[ 19]    According to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_Chronicle) (Primary Chronicle) Primary Chronicle  , the word Rus'   is derived from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus'_people) (Rus' people) Rus' people , who were a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedes) (Swedes) Swedish tribe, and from where the three original members of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurikid) (Rurikid) Rurikid dynasty came from.[ 20]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_language) (Finnish language) Finnish word for Swedes, (Finnish-language text) ruotsi  (./Category:Articles_containing_Finnish-language_text)  , has the same origin.[ 21]    In modern historiography, the early medieval (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Slavs) (East Slavs) East Slavic state is usually referred to as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rus') (Kievan Rus') Kievan Rus'  , named after its capital city.[ 22]    Another Medieval Latin name for Rus'   was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruthenia) (Ruthenia) Ruthenia  .[ 23]     In Russian, the current name of the country, (Russian-language text) Россия  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  ((Russian-language text) Rossiya  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  ), comes from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Greek) (Byzantine Greek) Byzantine Greek name (Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text) Ρωσία  (./Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text)  ((Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text) Rosía  (./Category:Articles_containing_Ancient_Greek_(to_1453)-language_text)  ).[ 24]    The name (Russian-language text) Росия  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  ((Russian-language text) Rosiya  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  ) was first attested in 1387.[ 25]    The name (Russian-language romanisation) Rossiya  appeared in Russian sources in the 15th century and began to replace the vernacular Rus'   during the rise of Moscow as the centre of a unified Russian state.[ 26]    However, until the end of the 17th century, the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as Rus'   , the "Russian land" ((Russian-language romanisation) Russkaya zemlya  ), or the "Muscovite state" ((Russian-language romanisation) Moskovskoye gosudarstvo  ), among other variations.[ 27]    [ 17]     In 1721, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great) (Peter the Great) Peter the Great proclaimed the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire) (Russian Empire) Russian Empire ((Russian-language romanisation) Rossiyskaya imperiya  ).[ 27]    The name Rossiya was used as the common designation for the multinational Russian Empire and then for the modern Russian state.[ 28]    Rossiya is distinguished from the ethnonym russkiy , as it refers to a supranational identity, including ethnic Russians.[ 28]    After the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution) (Russian Revolution) Russian Revolution and the proclamation of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic) (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) Russian SFSR in 1918, the "Russian" in the title of the state was Rossiyskaya , rather than Russkaya , as the former denoted a multinational state, while the latter had ethnic dimensions.[ 29]    In modern Russian, the name Rus'   is still used in poetry or prose to refer to either the older Russia or an imagined essence of Russia.[ 22]      History  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia) (History of Russia) History of Russia  Early history  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Further information: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_colonies) (Ancient Greek colonies) Ancient Greek colonies , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Slavs) (Early Slavs) Early Slavs , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns) (Huns) Huns , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_expansion) (Turkic expansion) Turkic expansion , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory_of_Siberia) (Prehistory of Siberia) Prehistory of Siberia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   See also: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans) (Proto-Indo-Europeans) Proto-Indo-Europeans and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Uralic_homeland) (Proto-Uralic homeland) Proto-Uralic homeland  The earliest evidence of human settlement in Russia dates to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldowan) (Oldowan) Oldowan period during the early (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic) (Lower Paleolithic) Lower Paleolithic . About 2 million years ago, representatives of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_erectus) (Homo erectus) Homo erectus  migrated to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taman_Peninsula) (Taman Peninsula) Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.[ 30]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flint) (Flint) Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasus) (North Caucasus) North Caucasus .[ 31]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiocarbon_dated) (Radiocarbon dated) Radiocarbon dated specimens from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denisova_Cave) (Denisova Cave) Denisova Cave in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_Mountains) (Altai Mountains) Altai Mountains estimate the oldest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denisovan) (Denisovan) Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.[ 32]    Fossils of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denny_(hybrid_hominin)) (Denny (hybrid hominin)) Denny  , an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_human) (Archaic human) archaic human hybrid that was half (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal) (Neanderthal) Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.[ 33]    Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezmaiskaya_cave) (Mezmaiskaya cave) Mezmaiskaya cave .[ 34]     The first trace of an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ust'-Ishim_man) (Ust'-Ishim man) early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Siberia) (Western Siberia) Western Siberia .[ 35]    The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human) (Human) anatomically modern humans , from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostyonki–Borshchyovo) (Kostyonki–Borshchyovo) Kostyonki–Borshchyovo ,[ 36]    and at (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungir) (Sungir) Sungir , dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Russia) (European Russia) western Russia .[ 37]    Humans reached (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_North_(Russia)) (Far North (Russia)) Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mamontovaya_Kurya) (Mamontovaya Kurya) Mamontovaya Kurya .[ 38]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasian) (Ancient North Eurasian) Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mal'ta–Buret'_culture) (Mal'ta–Buret' culture) Mal'ta–Buret' culture and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afontova_Gora) (Afontova Gora) Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Beringian) (Ancient Beringian) Ancient Native Americans and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Hunter-Gatherer) (Eastern Hunter-Gatherer) Eastern Hunter-Gatherers .[ 39]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yamnaya_Steppe_Pastoralists.jpg)   Bronze Age spread of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamnaya_culture) (Yamnaya culture) Yamnaya (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders) (Western Steppe Herders) Steppe pastoralist ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,[ 40]    including the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afanasievo_culture) (Afanasievo culture) Afanasievo culture of southern Siberia  The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis) (Kurgan hypothesis) Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine) (Ukraine) Ukraine as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urheimat) (Urheimat) urheimat of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans) (Proto-Indo-Europeans) Proto-Indo-Europeans .[ 41]    Early (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_migrations) (Indo-European migrations) Indo-European migrations from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic–Caspian_steppe) (Pontic–Caspian steppe) Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yamnaya_culture) (Yamnaya culture) Yamnaya ancestry and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages) (Indo-European languages) Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia.[ 42]    [ 43]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomadic_pastoralism) (Nomadic pastoralism) Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcolithic) (Chalcolithic) Chalcolithic .[ 44]    Remnants of these steppe civilisations were discovered in places such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipatovo_kurgan) (Ipatovo kurgan) Ipatovo ,[ 44]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sintashta) (Sintashta) Sintashta ,[ 45]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkaim) (Arkaim) Arkaim ,[ 46]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazyryk_burials) (Pazyryk burials) Pazyryk ,[ 47]    which bear the earliest known traces of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horses_in_warfare) (Horses in warfare) horses in warfare .[ 45]    The genetic makeup of speakers of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_language_family) (Uralic language family) Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia) (Siberia) Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.[ 48]     In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths) (Goths) Gothic kingdom of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oium) (Oium) Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huns) (Huns) Huns . Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosporan_Kingdom) (Bosporan Kingdom) Bosporan Kingdom , which was a Hellenistic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polity) (Polity) polity that succeeded the Greek colonies,[ 49]    was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pannonian_Avars) (Pannonian Avars) Eurasian Avars .[ 50]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars) (Khazars) Khazars , who were of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_peoples) (Turkic peoples) Turkic origin , ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiev) (Kiev) Kiev on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.[ 51]    After them came the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pechenegs) (Pechenegs) Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumans) (Cumans) Cumans and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kipchaks) (Kipchaks) Kipchaks .[ 52]     The ancestors of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians) (Russians) Russians are among the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_Slavic_peoples) (List of ancient Slavic peoples) Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe (circa) c.  1500 years ago.[ 53]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Slavs) (East Slavs) East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow) (Moscow) Moscow and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Petersburg) (Saint-Petersburg) Saint-Petersburg ) in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzdal) (Suzdal) Suzdal and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murom) (Murom) Murom and another from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polotsk) (Polotsk) Polotsk towards (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod) (Novgorod) Novgorod and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostov,_Yaroslavl_Oblast) (Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast) Rostov .[ 54]    Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finno-Ugrian) (Finno-Ugrian) Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.[ 55]    [ 56]       Kievan Rus'  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus'_Khaganate) (Rus' Khaganate) Rus' Khaganate ; (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rus') (Kievan Rus') Kievan Rus' ; and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine) (List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine) List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kievan-rus-1015-1113-(en).png)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kievan_Rus') (Kievan Rus') Kievan Rus' after the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Liubech) (Council of Liubech) Council of Liubech in 1097  The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varangians) (Varangians) Varangians , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings) (Vikings) Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From_the_Varangians_to_the_Greeks) (From the Varangians to the Greeks) to the Black and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga_trade_route) (Volga trade route) Caspian Seas .[ 57]    [ 58]    According to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_Chronicle) (Primary Chronicle) Primary Chronicle  , a Varangian from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rus'_people) (Rus' people) Rus' , named (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurik) (Rurik) Rurik , was elected ruler of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod) (Novgorod) Novgorod in 862.[ 59]    [ 60]    In 882, his successor (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleg_of_Novgorod) (Oleg of Novgorod) Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khazars) (Khazars) Khazars .[ 57]    [ 61]    Rurik's son (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_of_Kiev) (Igor of Kiev) Igor and Igor's son (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sviatoslav_I_of_Kiev) (Sviatoslav I of Kiev) Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar state, and launched several military expeditions to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sviatoslav's_invasion_of_Bulgaria) (Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria) Bulgaria , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paphlagonian_expedition_of_the_Rus') (Paphlagonian expedition of the Rus') Byzantium and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_expeditions_of_the_Rus') (Caspian expeditions of the Rus') Persia .[ 62]    [ 63]    [ 64]     During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_the_Great) (Vladimir the Great) Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaroslav_the_Wise) (Yaroslav the Wise) Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute Kiev's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age) (Golden Age) Golden Age .[ 65]    Through his political and religious reforms, Vladimir laid the foundations for the transformation of Kievan Rus' from a fragmented conglomeration of tributary groups into a more unified realm, connected by dynastic authority and shared religious and cultural ties.[ 66]    He (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianisation_of_Kievan_Rus') (Christianisation of Kievan Rus') adopted Christianity from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire) (Byzantine Empire) Byzantine Empire , beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that would define Russian culture for the next millennium.[ 67]    [ 68]    The reign of Yaroslav also saw the creation of the state's first written legal code, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russkaya_Pravda) (Russkaya Pravda) Russkaya Pravda  .[ 69]     Kievan Rus' was politically unstable due to weak centralisation and the absence of a stable succession principle.[ 70]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rota_system) (Rota system) rota system introduced by Yaroslav led to princely authority being distributed among members of the ruling (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurikid) (Rurikid) Rurikid dynasty according to seniority.[ 70]    Intended to preserve dynastic unity, this system increasingly fostered rivalry among princes, leading to frequent infighting.[ 70]    [ 71]    As a result, political power (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudal_fragmentation) (Feudal fragmentation) fragmented among competing regional centres, marking a gradual shift (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disintegration_of_Kievan_Rus') (Disintegration of Kievan Rus') toward decentralisation .[ 71]    [ 72]    [ 73]    Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal) (Vladimir-Suzdal) Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod_Republic) (Novgorod Republic) Novgorod Republic in the north, and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia–Volhynia) (Galicia–Volhynia) Galicia–Volhynia in the south-west.[ 74]    [ 75]    By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.[ 76]    Prince (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrey_Bogolyubsky) (Andrey Bogolyubsky) Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir,_Russia) (Vladimir, Russia) Vladimir his base,[ 76]    leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.[ 74]     Vladimir-Suzdal continued the tradition of strong princely rule, while the Novgorod Republic, which formally won its independence in 1136, was an exception.[ 77]    From the mid-13th century, the throne of Novgorod was held by the grand princes of Vladimir, although the prince's authority gradually diminished in favour of more republican-style governance, with political power increasingly held by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veche) (Veche) veche  (popular assembly) and elected officials.[ 78]    [ 79]    (Page / location: 83) :  83   Novgorod became a major commercial centre through the fur trade and an important centre of Russian culture.[ 80]    Led by Prince (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky) (Alexander Nevsky) Alexander Nevsky , the Novgorodians repelled the invading (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedes) (Swedes) Swedes in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Neva) (Battle of the Neva) Battle of the Neva in 1240, as well as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Crusades) (Northern Crusades) Germanic crusaders in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_on_the_Ice) (Battle on the Ice) Battle on the Ice in 1242.[ 81]    [ 82]     As it was undergoing fragmentation, Kievan Rus' finally fell to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Kievan_Rus') (Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus') Mongol invasions of 1237–1238, which overran much of the region and later resulted in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Kiev_(1240)) (Siege of Kiev (1240)) sacking of Kiev in 1240 and other cities, as well as the death of a significant portion of the population.[ 83]    The invaders, later known as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatars) (Tatars) Tatars , formed the state of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horde) (Golden Horde) Golden Horde , which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.[ 84]    [ 85]    Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols.[ 83]    Galicia–Volhynia would later be absorbed by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania) (Grand Duchy of Lithuania) Lithuania and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland_(1025–1385)) (Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)) Poland , while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north.[ 74]    In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.[ 86]      Grand Principality of Moscow  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Moscow) (Grand Principality of Moscow) Grand Principality of Moscow and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appanage_Russia) (Appanage Russia) Appanage Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lissner_TroiceSergievaLavr.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergius_of_Radonezh) (Sergius of Radonezh) Sergius of Radonezh blessing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Donskoy) (Dmitry Donskoy) Dmitry Donskoy in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Sergius_Lavra) (Trinity Sergius Lavra) Trinity Sergius Lavra , before the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo) (Battle of Kulikovo) Battle of Kulikovo , depicted in a painting by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Lissner) (Ernst Lissner) Ernst Lissner   The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Moscow) (Grand Principality of Moscow) Grand Principality of Moscow , initially a part of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal) (Vladimir-Suzdal) Vladimir-Suzdal .[ 55]    (Page / location: 11–20) :  11–20   While still under the domain of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol) (Mongol) Mongol -(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatars) (Tatars) Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,[ 87]    gradually becoming the leading force in the "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gathering_of_the_Russian_lands) (Gathering of the Russian lands) gathering of the Russian lands ".[ 88]    [ 89]    When the seat of the metropolitan of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church) (Russian Orthodox Church) Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.[ 90]    Moscow's last rival, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod_Republic) (Novgorod Republic) Novgorod Republic , prospered as the chief (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur_trade) (Fur trade) fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanseatic_League) (Hanseatic League) Hanseatic League .[ 91]     Led by Prince (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Donskoy) (Dmitry Donskoy) Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_principalities) (Russian principalities) Russian principalities inflicted (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Eastern_Europe_during_Turco-Mongol_rule) (List of conflicts in Eastern Europe during Turco-Mongol rule) a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kulikovo) (Battle of Kulikovo) Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.[ 83]    [ 92]    Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Tver) (Principality of Tver) Tver and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod_Republic) (Novgorod Republic) Novgorod .[ 88]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_III) (Ivan III) Ivan III ("the Great") threw off the control of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horde) (Golden Horde) Golden Horde and gained sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands;[ 93]    he later adopted the title of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_of_all_Russia) (Sovereign of all Russia) sovereign of all Russia .[ 94]    After the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople) (Fall of Constantinople) fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Rome) (Third Rome) claimed succession to the legacy of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire) (Eastern Roman Empire) Eastern Roman Empire . Ivan III married (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophia_Palaiologina) (Sophia Palaiologina) Sophia Palaiologina , the niece of the last (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_emperor) (Byzantine emperor) Byzantine emperor (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_XI) (Constantine XI) Constantine XI , and made the Byzantine (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-headed_eagle) (Double-headed eagle) double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.[ 93]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasili_III_of_Russia) (Vasili III of Russia) Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tribes_and_states_in_Belarus,_Russia_and_Ukraine) (List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine) Russian states in the early 16th century.[ 95]      Tsardom of Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia) (Tsardom of Russia) Tsardom of Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   See also: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome) (Moscow, third Rome) Moscow, third Rome  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ivan_grozny_frame.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_IV) (Ivan IV) Ivan IV was the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Prince_of_Moscow) (Grand Prince of Moscow) Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar_of_Russia) (Tsar of Russia) Tsar of Russia until his death in 1584.  In development of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow,_third_Rome) (Moscow, third Rome) Third Rome ideas, the grand prince (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_IV) (Ivan IV) Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned as the first (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar_of_all_Russia) (Tsar of all Russia) tsar of all Russia in 1547. The tsar (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promulgation) (Promulgation) promulgated a new code of laws ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudebnik_of_1550) (Sudebnik of 1550) Sudebnik of 1550 ), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemsky_Sobor) (Zemsky Sobor) Zemsky Sobor ), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.[ 55]    During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan) (Khanate of Kazan) Kazan and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrakhan_Khanate) (Astrakhan Khanate) Astrakhan along the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga) (Volga) Volga ,[ 96]    and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanate_of_Sibir) (Khanate of Sibir) Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Mountains) (Ural Mountains) Ural Mountains .[ 97]    However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonian_War) (Livonian War) Livonian War against the coalition of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_of_the_Kingdom_of_Poland) (Crown of the Kingdom of Poland) Kingdom of Poland and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania) (Grand Duchy of Lithuania) Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth) (Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ), the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Sweden_(1523–1611)) (History of Sweden (1523–1611)) Kingdom of Sweden , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark–Norway) (Denmark–Norway) Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.[ 98]    In 1571, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Khanate) (Crimean Khanate) Crimean Tatars , supported by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire) (Ottoman Empire) Ottomans , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire_of_Moscow_(1571)) (Fire of Moscow (1571)) burned down Moscow , destroying everything except the Kremlin. The following year, the Crimeans attempted another raid on Moscow, but this time they were defeated in the crucial (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Molodi) (Battle of Molodi) Battle of Molodi .[ 99]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fedor_chertezh.jpeg)   Feodor Godunov's map of Russia, as published by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hessel_Gerritsz) (Hessel Gerritsz) Hessel Gerritsz in 1614  The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rurik_dynasty) (Rurik dynasty) Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1601–03) (Russian famine of 1601–03) famine of 1601–1603 , led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_of_Troubles) (Time of Troubles) Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.[ 100]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish–Lithuanian_Commonwealth) (Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.[ 101]    In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuzma_Minin) (Kuzma Minin) Kuzma Minin and prince (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Pozharsky) (Dmitry Pozharsky) Dmitry Pozharsky .[ 102]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanov_dynasty) (Romanov dynasty) Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.[ 103]     Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossacks) (Cossacks) Cossacks .[ 104]    In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohdan_Khmelnytsky) (Bohdan Khmelnytsky) Bohdan Khmelnytsky , offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_of_Russia) (Alexis of Russia) Alexis , whose acceptance of this offer led to another (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Polish_War_(1654–1667)) (Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)) Russo-Polish War . Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dnieper) (Dnieper) Dnieper , placing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left-bank_Ukraine) (Left-bank Ukraine) left-bank Ukraine and Kiev under Russian rule.[ 105]    In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_explorers) (List of Russian explorers) Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_River_Routes) (Siberian River Routes) Siberian River Routes , and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chukchi_Peninsula) (Chukchi Peninsula) Chukchi Peninsula , along the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_River) (Amur River) Amur River , and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.[ 104]    In 1648, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semyon_Dezhnyov) (Semyon Dezhnyov) Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_Strait) (Bering Strait) Bering Strait .[ 106]      Imperial Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire) (Russian Empire) Russian Empire  Under (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great) (Peter the Great) Peter the Great , Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Northern_War) (Great Northern War) Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, Peter founded (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg) (Saint Petersburg) Saint Petersburg on the Baltic Sea by establishing the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_and_Paul_Fortress) (Peter and Paul Fortress) Peter and Paul Fortress as a strategic outpost; the city later replaced Moscow as Russia's capital in 1712. Throughout his rule, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_reform_of_Peter_the_Great) (Government reform of Peter the Great) sweeping reforms were made , which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.[ 55]    He was succeeded by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_I_of_Russia) (Catherine I of Russia) Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_II_of_Russia) (Peter II of Russia) Peter II (1727–1730), and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_of_Russia) (Anna of Russia) Anna . The reign of Peter I's daughter (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_of_Russia) (Elizabeth of Russia) Elizabeth from 1741 to 1762 saw Russia's participation in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Years'_War) (Seven Years' War) Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Prussia) (East Prussia) East Prussia , reaching Berlin.[ 107]    However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia) (Kingdom of Prussia) Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_III_of_Russia) (Peter III of Russia) Peter III of Russia .[ 108]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Growth_of_Russia_1547-1725.png)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_of_Russia_(1500–1800)) (Expansion of Russia (1500–1800)) Expansion and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Russia) (Territorial evolution of Russia) territorial evolution of Russia from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Russian_monarch) (Coronation of the Russian monarch) coronation of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_the_Terrible) (Ivan the Terrible) Ivan IV to the death of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great) (Peter the Great) Peter I   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_the_Great) (Catherine the Great) Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled from 1762 to 1796, presided over the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment) (Russian Enlightenment) Russian Age of Enlightenment . She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partitions_of_Poland) (Partitions of Poland) annexed most of its territories into Russia , making it the most populous country in Europe.[ 109]    In the south, after the successful (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_Wars) (Russo-Turkish Wars) Russo-Turkish Wars against the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire) (Ottoman Empire) Ottoman Empire , Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Khanate) (Crimean Khanate) Crimean Khanate , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Empire) (Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire) annexing Crimea .[ 110]    As a result of victories over (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qajar_dynasty) (Qajar dynasty) Qajar Iran through the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Persian_Wars) (Russo-Persian Wars) Russo-Persian Wars , by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_the_Caucasus) (Russian conquest of the Caucasus) conquered the Caucasus .[ 111]    Catherine's successor, her son (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia) (Paul I of Russia) Paul , was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality_and_reputation_of_Paul_I_of_Russia) (Personality and reputation of Paul I of Russia) unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues .[ 112]    Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia) (Alexander I of Russia) Alexander I 's (1801–1825) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_War) (Finnish War) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809,[ 113]    and of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessarabia) (Bessarabia) Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.[ 114]    In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_America) (Russian America) reach and colonise Alaska .[ 115]    In 1803–1806, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Russian_circumnavigation) (First Russian circumnavigation) first Russian circumnavigation was made.[ 116]    In 1820, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Gottlieb_von_Bellingshausen#First_Russian_Antarctic_expedition) (Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen) a Russian expedition discovered the continent of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica) (Antarctica) Antarctica .[ 117]      Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Napoleons_retreat_from_Moscow_by_Adolph_Northen.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon) (Napoleon) Napoleon 's retreat from Moscow by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_Adam) (Albrecht Adam) Albrecht Adam (1851)  During the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars) (Napoleonic Wars) Napoleonic Wars , Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_invasion_of_Russia) (French invasion of Russia) French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_winter) (Russian winter) Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grande_Armée) (Grande Armée) Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Kutuzov) (Mikhail Kutuzov) Mikhail Kutuzov and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Andreas_Barclay_de_Tolly) (Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly) Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Army) (Imperial Russian Army) Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Sixth_Coalition) (War of the Sixth Coalition) War of the Sixth Coalition , ultimately entering Paris.[ 118]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia) (Alexander I of Russia) Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna) (Congress of Vienna) Congress of Vienna , which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.[ 119]     The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decembrist_revolt) (Decembrist revolt) Decembrist revolt of 1825.[ 120]    At the end of the conservative reign of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_I_of_Russia) (Nicholas I of Russia) Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_War) (Crimean War) Crimean War .[ 121]      Great liberal reforms and capitalism  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_defeat_of_Shipka_Peak,_Bulgarian_War_of_Independence.JPG)   The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Shipka_Pass) (Battle of Shipka Pass) Battle of Shipka Pass for the control of the vital (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipka_Pass) (Shipka Pass) Shipka Pass during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877–1878)) (Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)) 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War   Nicholas's successor (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia) (Alexander II of Russia) Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861) (Emancipation reform of 1861) emancipation reform of 1861 .[ 122]    These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans) (Balkans) Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1877–1878)) (Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)) 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War .[ 123]    During most of the 19th and early 20th centuries, Russia and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire) (British Empire) Britain colluded over (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan) (Emirate of Afghanistan) Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia) (Central Asia) Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Game) (Great Game) Great Game .[ 124]     The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Alexander_II_of_Russia) (Assassination of Alexander II of Russia) assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.[ 125]    The reign of his son (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_III_of_Russia) (Alexander III of Russia) Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.[ 126]      Constitutional monarchy and World War  During the reign of the last Russian emperor, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_II) (Nicholas II) Nicholas II (1894–1917), the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution_of_1905) (Revolution of 1905) Revolution of 1905 was precipitated by the disastrous and humiliating defeat in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War) (Russo-Japanese War) Russo-Japanese War .[ 127]    The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Constitution_of_1906) (Russian Constitution of 1906) Russian Constitution of 1906 ), including granting (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_speech) (Freedom of speech) freedoms of speech and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_assembly) (Freedom of assembly) assembly , the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Duma_(Russian_Empire)) (State Duma (Russian Empire)) State Duma .[ 128]       Revolution and civil war  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution) (Russian Revolution) Russian Revolution , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Civil_War) (Russian Civil War) Russian Civil War , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Russian_Empire) (Dissolution of the Russian Empire) Dissolution of the Russian Empire  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russian_Imperial_Family_1913.jpg)   Emperor (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia) (Nicholas II of Russia) Nicholas II of Russia and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Romanov) (House of Romanov) Romanovs were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_of_the_Romanov_family) (Execution of the Romanov family) executed by the Bolsheviks in 1918.  In 1914, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I) (Russian entry into World War I) Russia entered World War I in response to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary) (Austria-Hungary) Austria-Hungary 's declaration of war on Russia's ally (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia) (Kingdom of Serbia) Serbia ,[ 129]    and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Entente) (Triple Entente) Triple Entente allies.[ 130]    In 1916, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brusilov_Offensive) (Brusilov Offensive) Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Army) (Austro-Hungarian Army) Austro-Hungarian Army .[ 131]    However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I_casualties) (World War I casualties) high casualties , and rumours of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revolution) (Russian Revolution) Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.[ 55]    In early 1917, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia) (Nicholas II of Russia) Nicholas II was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_Revolution) (February Revolution) forced to abdicate ; he and his family were imprisoned and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting_of_the_Romanov_family) (Shooting of the Romanov family) later executed during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Civil_War) (Russian Civil War) Russian Civil War .[ 132]    The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government) (Russian Provisional Government) Provisional Government ,[ 133]    and proclaimed the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Republic) (Russian Republic) Russian Republic . On 19 January  [ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates) (Old Style and New Style dates) O.S. 6 January ] , 1918, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Constituent_Assembly) (Russian Constituent Assembly) Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-Russian_Central_Executive_Committee) (All-Russian Central Executive Committee) All-Russian Central Executive Committee .[ 55]     An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrograd_Soviet) (Petrograd Soviet) Petrograd Soviet , wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_(council)) (Soviet (council)) soviets  . The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/October_Revolution) (October Revolution) October Revolution , led by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik) (Bolshevik) Bolshevik leader (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin) (Vladimir Lenin) Vladimir Lenin , overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_state) (Socialist state) socialist state .[ 55]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Civil_War) (Russian Civil War) Russian Civil War broke out between the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-communist) (Anti-communist) anti-communist (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_movement) (White movement) White movement and the Bolsheviks with its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army) (Red Army) Red Army .[ 134]    In the aftermath of signing the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Brest-Litovsk) (Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Powers) (Central Powers) Central Powers of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I) (World War I) World War I , Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.[ 135]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vladimir_Lenin_Speech_in_May_1920.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin) (Vladimir Lenin) Vladimir Lenin speaks in Moscow, 1920, with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Trotsky) (Leon Trotsky) Leon Trotsky leaning against the podium.  The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I) (Allies of World War I) Allied powers launched an unsuccessful (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War) (Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War) military intervention in support of anti-communist forces.[ 136]    In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Terror) (Red Terror) Red Terror and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Terror_(Russia)) (White Terror (Russia)) White Terror .[ 137]    By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.[ 138]    Millions became (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_émigré) (White émigré) White émigrés ,[ 139]    and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_famine_of_1921–1922) (Russian famine of 1921–1922) Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.[ 140]      Soviet Union  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union) (History of the Soviet Union) History of the Soviet Union  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russian_SFSR_in_Soviet_Union_(1936).svg)   Location of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic) (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) Russian SFSR (red) within the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union) (Soviet Union) Soviet Union in 1936  Command economy and Soviet society  On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Creation_of_the_USSR) (Treaty on the Creation of the USSR) formed the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union) (Soviet Union) Soviet Union , by joining the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic) (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) Russian SFSR into a single state with the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic) (Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic) Byelorussian , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic) (Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic) Transcaucasian , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic) (Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic) Ukrainian republics.[ 141]    Eventually, internal border changes and annexations during World War II resulted in a union of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union) (Republics of the Soviet Union) 15 republics , the largest and most populous being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.[ 142]     Following (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Vladimir_Lenin) (Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin) Lenin's death in 1924, a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Troikas_in_the_Soviet_Union) (List of Troikas in the Soviet Union) troika was designated to take charge. Eventually (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin) (Joseph Stalin) Joseph Stalin , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union) (General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union) General Secretary of the Communist Party , managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s.[ 143]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Trotsky) (Leon Trotsky) Leon Trotsky , the main proponent of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_revolution) (World revolution) world revolution , was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929,[ 144]    and Stalin's idea of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialism_in_One_Country) (Socialism in One Country) Socialism in One Country became the official line.[ 145]    The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Purge) (Great Purge) Great Purge .[ 146]      Stalinism and modernisation  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Telegram_Stalin_STZ.jpg)   Congratulations sent by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin) (Joseph Stalin) Joseph Stalin on the opening of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volgograd_Tractor_Plant) (Volgograd Tractor Plant) Stalingrad Tractor Plant   Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_economy) (Command economy) command economy , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrialization_in_the_USSR) (Industrialization in the USSR) industrialisation of the largely rural country , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_USSR) (Collectivization in the USSR) collectivisation of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_USSR) (Agriculture in the USSR) its agriculture . During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag) (Gulag) penal labour camps , including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule,[ 147]    and millions were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union) (Population transfer in the Soviet Union) deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.[ 148]    The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,[ 149]    led to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1932–1933) (Soviet famine of 1932–1933) Soviet famine of 1932–1933 , which killed 5.7[ 150]    to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.[ 151]    The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.[ 152]      World War II and United Nations  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_in_World_War_II) (Soviet Union in World War II) Soviet Union in World War II  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ленинград_блокадный._Им_обеим_30_лет.jpg)   Two teenage girls assemble (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PPD-40) (PPD-40) PPD-40 submachine guns during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad) (Siege of Leningrad) Siege of Leningrad in 1942.  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RIAN_archive_602161_Center_of_Stalingrad_after_liberation.jpg)   The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad) (Battle of Stalingrad) Battle of Stalingrad , the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Army_(1935–1945)) (German Army (1935–1945)) German army .  The Soviet Union entered (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II) (World War II) World War II on 17 September 1939 with its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland) (Soviet invasion of Poland) invasion of Poland ,[ 153]    in accordance with a secret protocol within the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molotov–Ribbentrop_Pact) (Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany) (Nazi Germany) Nazi Germany .[ 154]    The Soviet Union later (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_War) (Winter War) invaded Finland ,[ 155]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)) (Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)) occupied and annexed the Baltic states ,[ 156]    as well as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_Northern_Bukovina) (Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina) parts of Romania .[ 157]    (Page / location: 91–95) :  91–95   On 22 June 1941, Germany (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa) (Operation Barbarossa) invaded the Soviet Union ,[ 158]    opening the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_II)) (Eastern Front (World War II)) Eastern Front , the largest theatre of World War II.[ 159]    (Page / location: 7) :  7    Eventually, some 5 million (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army) (Red Army) Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis;[ 160]    (Page / location: 272) :  272   the latter deliberately (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_mistreatment_of_Soviet_prisoners_of_war) (German mistreatment of Soviet prisoners of war) starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner_of_war) (Prisoner of war) POWs , and a vast number of civilians, as the "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunger_Plan) (Hunger Plan) Hunger Plan " sought to fulfil (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalplan_Ost) (Generalplan Ost) Generalplan Ost .[ 161]    (Page / location: 175–186) :  175–186   Although the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehrmacht) (Wehrmacht) Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow) (Battle of Moscow) Battle of Moscow .[ 162]    Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Stalingrad) (Battle of Stalingrad) Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,[ 163]    and then in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kursk) (Battle of Kursk) Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.[ 164]    Another German failure was the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad) (Siege of Leningrad) Siege of Leningrad , in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.[ 165]    Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Berlin) (Battle of Berlin) captured Berlin in May 1945.[ 166]    In August 1945, the Red Army (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria) (Soviet invasion of Manchuria) invaded Manchuria and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet–Japanese_War) (Soviet–Japanese War) ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.[ 167]     The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Patriotic_War_(term)) (Great Patriotic War (term)) Great Patriotic War .[ 168]    The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Policemen) (Four Policemen) Four Policemen , which was the foundation of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council) (United Nations Security Council) United Nations Security Council .[ 169]    (Page / location: 27) :  27   During the war, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties_of_the_Soviet_Union) (World War II casualties of the Soviet Union) Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million ,[ 170]    accounting for about half of all (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_casualties) (World War II casualties) World War II casualties .[ 171]    (Page / location: 295) :  295   The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Soviet_Union) (Economy of the Soviet Union) Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_famine_of_1946–1947) (Soviet famine of 1946–1947) Soviet famine of 1946–1947 .[ 172]    However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a superpower.[ 173]      Superpower and Cold War  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yalta_Conference_(Churchill,_Roosevelt,_Stalin)_(B&W).jpg)   The "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Alliance_(World_War_II)) (Grand Alliance (World War II)) Big Three " at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yalta_Conference) (Yalta Conference) Yalta Conference in February 1945, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winston_Churchill) (Winston Churchill) Winston Churchill , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt) (Franklin D. Roosevelt) Franklin D. Roosevelt and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin) (Joseph Stalin) Joseph Stalin   After World War II, according to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam_Conference) (Potsdam Conference) Potsdam Conference , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army) (Red Army) Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany) (East Germany) East Germany and the eastern regions of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria) (Austria) Austria .[ 174]    Dependent communist governments were installed in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Bloc) (Eastern Bloc) Eastern Bloc satellite states.[ 175]    After becoming the world's second (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction) (Russia and weapons of mass destruction) nuclear power ,[ 176]    the Soviet Union established the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact) (Warsaw Pact) Warsaw Pact alliance,[ 177]    and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War) (Cold War) Cold War , with the rivalling United States and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO) (NATO) NATO .[ 178]      Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development  After (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Joseph_Stalin) (Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin) Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_leadership_in_the_Soviet_Union) (Collective leadership in the Soviet Union) collective leadership , the new leader (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev) (Nikita Khrushchev) Nikita Khrushchev denounced (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences) (On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences) Stalin and launched the policy of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De-Stalinization) (De-Stalinization) de-Stalinization , releasing many political prisoners from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag) (Gulag) Gulag labour camps.[ 179]    The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khrushchev_Thaw) (Khrushchev Thaw) Khrushchev Thaw .[ 180]    At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGM-19_Jupiter) (PGM-19 Jupiter) Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis) (Cuban Missile Crisis) missiles in Cuba .[ 181]     In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite) (Satellite) satellite , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_1) (Sputnik 1) Sputnik 1  , thus starting the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Age) (Space Age) Space Age .[ 182]    Russian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonaut) (Cosmonaut) cosmonaut (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin) (Yuri Gagarin) Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_1) (Vostok 1) Vostok 1  crewed spacecraft on (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonautics_Day) (Cosmonautics Day) 12 April 1961 .[ 183]      Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation  Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective leadership ensued, until (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid_Brezhnev) (Leonid Brezhnev) Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation) (Era of Stagnation) Era of Stagnation . The 1965 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosygin_reform) (Kosygin reform) Kosygin reform aimed for partial (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralisation) (Decentralisation) decentralisation of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_economy) (Soviet economy) Soviet economy .[ 184]    In 1979, after a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saur_Revolution) (Saur Revolution) communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet–Afghan_War) (Soviet–Afghan War) Soviet–Afghan War .[ 185]    In May 1988, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_withdrawal_from_Afghanistan) (Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan) Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan , due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.[ 186]       Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:President_Ronald_Reagan_Greets_a_Young_Boy_While_Touring_Red_Square_During_The_Moscow_Summit_in_The_USSR_-_DPLA_-_8f066efdc87eb23a889a89bd7c39173d.jpg)   Soviet leader (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev) (Mikhail Gorbachev) Mikhail Gorbachev and US President (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan) (Ronald Reagan) Ronald Reagan in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Square) (Red Square) Red Square during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Summit_(1988)) (Moscow Summit (1988)) Moscow Summit , 31 May 1988  From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev) (Mikhail Gorbachev) Mikhail Gorbachev , who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasnost) (Glasnost) glasnost  (openness) and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perestroika) (Perestroika) perestroika  (restructuring) in an attempt to end the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Era_of_Stagnation) (Era of Stagnation) period of economic stagnation and to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demokratizatsiya_(Soviet_Union)) (Demokratizatsiya (Soviet Union)) democratise the government .[ 187]    This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.[ 188]    Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.[ 189]     By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_states) (Baltic states) Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.[ 190]    On 17 March, a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Soviet_Union_referendum) (1991 Soviet Union referendum) referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Union_Treaty) (New Union Treaty) renewed federation .[ 191]    In June 1991, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin) (Boris Yeltsin) Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Russia) (President of Russia) President in Russian history when he was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Russian_presidential_election) (1991 Russian presidential election) elected President of the Russian SFSR.[ 192]    In August 1991, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d'état_attempt) (1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt) a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.[ 193]    On 25 December 1991, following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union) (Dissolution of the Soviet Union) dissolution of the Soviet Union , along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Soviet_states) (Post-Soviet states) post-Soviet states emerged.[ 194]       Independent Russian Federation  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia_(1991–present)) (History of Russia (1991–present)) History of Russia (1991–present)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Further information: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Boris_Yeltsin) (Presidency of Boris Yeltsin) Presidency of Boris Yeltsin , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_under_Vladimir_Putin) (Russia under Vladimir Putin) Russia under Vladimir Putin , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Dmitry_Medvedev) (Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev) Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev  Transition to a market economy and political crises  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vladimir_Putin_taking_the_Presidential_Oath,_7_May_2000.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin) (Vladimir Putin) Vladimir Putin takes the oath of office as president on his (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Vladimir_Putin) (First inauguration of Vladimir Putin) first inauguration , with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Yeltsin) (Boris Yeltsin) Boris Yeltsin looking over, 2000  The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privatization_in_Russia) (Privatization in Russia) privatisation and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_trade) (Free trade) market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_therapy_(economics)) (Shock therapy (economics)) shock therapy ".[ 195]    The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_oligarchs) (Russian oligarchs) Russian oligarchs .[ 196]    Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_flight) (Capital flight) capital flight .[ 197]    The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_rate) (Birth rate) birth rate plummeted while the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_rate) (Death rate) death rate skyrocketed,[ 198]    [ 199]    and millions plunged into poverty,[ 200]    while extreme corruption,[ 201]    as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.[ 202]     In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_crisis) (1993 Russian constitutional crisis) a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.[ 203]       Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation  In December, a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993_Russian_constitutional_referendum) (1993 Russian constitutional referendum) referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.[ 204]    The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasus) (North Caucasus) North Caucasus , both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamist) (Islamist) Islamist insurrections.[ 205]    From the time (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechnya) (Chechnya) Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Chechen_War) (First Chechen War) intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.[ 206]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrorism_in_Russia) (Terrorism in Russia) Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.[ f]    [ 207]     After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts.[ 208]    In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.[ 209]    High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998_Russian_financial_crisis) (1998 Russian financial crisis) 1998 Russian financial crisis , which resulted in a further GDP decline.[ 210]       Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Further information: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putinism) (Putinism) Putinism  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Obama_and_Medvedev_sign_Prague_Treaty_2010.jpeg)   President (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev) (Dmitry Medvedev) Dmitry Medvedev with U.S. President (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama) (Barack Obama) Barack Obama after signing the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_START) (New START) New START treaty on (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament) (Nuclear disarmament) nuclear disarmament in 2010, which was suspended by Putin in 2023[ 211]      On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,[ 212]    handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin) (Vladimir Putin) Vladimir Putin .[ 213]    Putin then won the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000_Russian_presidential_election) (2000 Russian presidential election) 2000 presidential election ,[ 214]    and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Chechen_War) (Second Chechen War) Second Chechen War .[ 215]     Putin won a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Russian_presidential_election) (2004 Russian presidential election) second presidential term in 2004.[ 216]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_of_petroleum) (Price of petroleum) High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_economy) (Russian economy) Russian economy and living standards improve significantly.[ 217]    Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarianism#Examples) (Authoritarianism) authoritarian state .[ 218]    In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Medvedev) (Dmitry Medvedev) Dmitry Medvedev was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Russian_presidential_election) (2008 Russian presidential election) elected President for one term, to hold onto power despite legal (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_limit) (Term limit) term limits ;[ 219]    this period has been described as a "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medvedev–Putin_tandemocracy) (Medvedev–Putin tandemocracy) tandemocracy ".[ 220]     Following a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Russo-Georgian_diplomatic_crisis) (2008 Russo-Georgian diplomatic crisis) diplomatic standoff with neighbouring (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)) (Georgia (country)) Georgia in 2008, Russian forces (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Georgian_War) (Russo-Georgian War) invaded the country from 1–16 August 2008 and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupied_territories_of_Georgia) (Occupied territories of Georgia) occupied territories that it has (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_recognition_of_Abkhazia_and_South_Ossetia) (International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia) since considered as independent states, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhazia) (Abkhazia) Abkhazia and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ossetia) (South Ossetia) South Ossetia .[ 221]    The conflict marked the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Europe) (List of conflicts in Europe) first war in Europe in the 21st century.[ 222]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia) (2008 amendments to the Constitution of Russia) 2008 constitutional amendments saw the terms of the president extend to six years and the lower house (State Duma) to five years.[ 223]    Putin then went on to win the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Russian_presidential_election) (2012 Russian presidential election) 2012 presidential election , which fuelled the "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011–2013_Russian_protests) (2011–2013 Russian protests) Snow Revolution " protests.[ 224]      Russo-Ukrainian war and 2022 invasion  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Ukrainian_war) (Russo-Ukrainian war) Russo-Ukrainian war  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine.svg)   Map of Ukraine as of December  2025 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_December_2025)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  :(mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      Continuously controlled by Ukraine (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-occupied_territories_of_Ukraine) (Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine) Currently occupied or controlled by Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-occupied_territories_of_Ukraine#Formerly_occupied_territories) (Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine) Formerly occupied by Russia    In 2014, following (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolution_of_Dignity) (Revolution of Dignity) a pro-Western revolution in Ukraine, Russia invaded and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation) (Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation) annexed Crimea .[ 225]    [ 226]    It also supported (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_pro-Russian_unrest_in_Ukraine) (2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine) an insurgency in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donbas) (Donbas) Donbas region of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Ukraine) (Eastern Ukraine) eastern Ukraine ,[ 227]    and aided pro-Russian separatists waging a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Donbas) (War in Donbas) war against the Ukrainian government .[ 228]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frozen_conflict) (Frozen conflict) frozen conflict [ 229]    escalated into (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine) a full-scale Russian invasion of the remainder of Ukraine on 24 February 2022,[ 230]    [ 231]    initiating the largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_warfare) (Conventional warfare) conventional war in Europe since World War II.[ 232]    The invasion met with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reactions_to_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (Reactions to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine) international condemnation ,[ 233]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (International sanctions during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine) expanded sanctions against Russia.[ 234]    Russia was expelled from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Europe) (Council of Europe) Council of Europe in March 2022,[ 235]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_ES-11/3) (United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/3) subsequently suspended from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council) (United Nations Human Rights Council) United Nations Human Rights Council the following month.[ 236]     Russia initially made rapid advances in the northern and eastern fronts, yet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kyiv_(2022)) (Battle of Kyiv (2022)) failed to capture Kyiv and overthrow the Ukrainian government, leading to a subsequent (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_front_of_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (Northern front of the Russian invasion of Ukraine) withdrawal from the north .[ 237]    [ 238]    In September 2022, Russia proclaimed the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation_of_southeastern_Ukraine_by_the_Russian_Federation) (Annexation of southeastern Ukraine by the Russian Federation) annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions , which was internationally (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_ES-11/4) (United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4) denounced as illegal .[ 239]    Following the annexations, the conflict has settled into a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attrition_warfare) (Attrition warfare) war of attrition in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_front_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_war_(2022–present)) (Southern front of the Russo-Ukrainian war (2022–present)) southern and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_front_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_war_(2022–present)) (Eastern front of the Russo-Ukrainian war (2022–present)) eastern fronts , with Russian forces making slow, limited advances and suffering (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Russo-Ukrainian_war) (Casualties of the Russo-Ukrainian war) heavy casualties .[ 237]    [ 238]    Russian forces have been (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (War crimes in the Russian invasion of Ukraine) accused of committing war crimes during the invasion,[ 240]    [ 241]    [ 242]    and occupied about a fifth of Ukraine's territory at the end of 2025.[ 243]        Geography  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Russia) (Geography of Russia) Geography of Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russian_Federation_Relief_Map.png)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographic_map) (Topographic map) Topographic map of Russia  Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.[ 244]    [ 245]    It spans the northernmost edge of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasia) (Eurasia) Eurasia and has the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_length_of_coastline) (List of countries by length of coastline) fourth-longest coastline , of over 37,653  km (23,396  mi) .[ g]    [ 247]    Russia lies between latitudes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/41st_parallel_north) (41st parallel north) 41° and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/82nd_parallel_north) (82nd parallel north) 82° N , and longitudes (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_meridian_east) (19th meridian east) 19° E and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/169th_meridian_west) (169th meridian west) 169° W , extending some 9,000  km (5,600  mi) east to west, and 2,500 to 4,000  km (1,600 to 2,500  mi) north to south.[ 248]    Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,[ h]    and has the same surface area as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluto) (Pluto) Pluto .[ 249]     Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Russia) (Southern Russia) southernmost regions , which share a significant portion of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains) (Caucasus Mountains) Caucasus Mountains (containing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Elbrus) (Mount Elbrus) Mount Elbrus , which at 5,642  m (18,510  ft) is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_elevation_extremes_by_region) (List of elevation extremes by region) highest peak in Russia and Europe);[ 250]    the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altai_Mountains) (Altai Mountains) Altai and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayan_Mountains) (Sayan Mountains) Sayan Mountains in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia) (Siberia) Siberia ; and in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Siberian_Mountains) (East Siberian Mountains) East Siberian Mountains and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsula) (Kamchatka Peninsula) Kamchatka Peninsula in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Far_East) (Russian Far East) Russian Far East (containing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klyuchevskaya_Sopka) (Klyuchevskaya Sopka) Klyuchevskaya Sopka , which at 4,750  m (15,584  ft) is the highest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_volcano) (Active volcano) active volcano in Eurasia).[ 251]    [ 244]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ural_Mountains) (Ural Mountains) Ural Mountains , running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boundary_between_Europe_and_Asia) (Boundary between Europe and Asia) traditional boundary between Europe and Asia .[ 252]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme_points_of_Europe#Elevation) (Extreme points of Europe) lowest point in Russia and Europe , is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Depression) (Caspian Depression) Caspian Depression reaches some 29 metres (95.1  ft) below sea level.[ 253]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Baikal_in_winter.jpg)   Frozen (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Baikal) (Lake Baikal) Lake Baikal near (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olkhon_Island) (Olkhon Island) Olkhon Island , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_island#Lists_of_lake_islands) (Lake island) third-largest lake island in the world  Russia, as one of the world's only three countries (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_bordering_on_two_or_more_oceans) (List of countries bordering on two or more oceans) bordering three oceans ,[ 245]    has links with a great number of seas.[ i]    [ 244]    Its major islands and archipelagos include (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novaya_Zemlya) (Novaya Zemlya) Novaya Zemlya , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Josef_Land) (Franz Josef Land) Franz Josef Land , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severnaya_Zemlya) (Severnaya Zemlya) Severnaya Zemlya , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Siberian_Islands) (New Siberian Islands) New Siberian Islands , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrangel_Island) (Wrangel Island) Wrangel Island , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuril_Islands) (Kuril Islands) Kuril Islands (four of which are (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuril_Islands_dispute) (Kuril Islands dispute) disputed with Japan ), and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakhalin) (Sakhalin) Sakhalin .[ 254]    [ 255]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diomede_Islands) (Diomede Islands) Diomede Islands , administered by Russia and the United States, are just 3.8  km (2.4  mi) apart;[ 256]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kunashir_Island) (Kunashir Island) Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely 20  km (12.4  mi) from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkaido) (Hokkaido) Hokkaido , Japan.[ 2]     Russia has one of the world's largest surface water resources and is second only to Brazil by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_total_renewable_water_resources) (List of countries by total renewable water resources) total renewable water resources .[ 257]    Its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresh_water) (Fresh water) fresh water .[ 244]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Baikal) (Lake Baikal) Lake Baikal , the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.[ 258]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Ladoga) (Lake Ladoga) Ladoga and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Onega) (Lake Onega) Onega in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Russia) (Northwest Russia) northwestern Russia are two of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_lakes_of_Europe) (List of largest lakes of Europe) largest lakes in Europe .[ 245]    Russia has over 100,000 rivers;[ 245]    the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga) (Volga) Volga in western Russia, which is widely regarded as the national river, is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Europe#Rivers_of_Europe_by_length) (List of rivers of Europe) longest river in Europe and forms the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volga_Delta) (Volga Delta) Volga Delta , the largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_delta) (River delta) river delta in the continent.[ 259]    The Siberian rivers of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob_River) (Ob River) Ob , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yenisey) (Yenisey) Yenisey , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lena_River) (Lena River) Lena , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_River) (Amur River) Amur are among the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rivers_by_length) (List of rivers by length) longest rivers .[ 260]     Climate  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Russia) (Climate of Russia) Climate of Russia  The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humid_continental_climate) (Humid continental climate) humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean) (Indian Ocean) Indian and Pacific oceans, while the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Plain) (European Plain) European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.[ 244]    Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subarctic_climate) (Subarctic climate) subarctic climate , with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakha_Republic) (Sakha Republic) Sakha , where the Northern (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_of_Cold) (Pole of Cold) Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of −71.2  °C or −96.2  °F ),[ 254]    and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Arctic_islands) (Russian Arctic islands) Russian Arctic islands have a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_climate) (Polar climate) polar climate .[ 244]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russia_Köppen.svg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Köppen_climate_classification) (Köppen climate classification) Köppen climate classification of Russia  The coastal part of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnodar_Krai) (Krasnodar Krai) Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sochi) (Sochi) Sochi , and some coastal and interior strips of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasus) (North Caucasus) North Caucasus possess a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humid_subtropical_climate) (Humid subtropical climate) humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.[ 244]    In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer, while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanic_climate) (Oceanic climate) oceanic climate .[ 244]    The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-arid_climate) (Semi-arid climate) semi-arid climate .[ 261]     Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer, as spring and autumn are usually brief.[ 244]    The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.[ 262]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_Russia) (Climate change in Russia) Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildfires_in_Russia) (Wildfires in Russia) wildfires ,[ 263]    and thawing the country's large expanse of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permafrost) (Permafrost) permafrost .[ 264]      Biodiversity  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_of_Russia) (Wildlife of Russia) Wildlife of Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   See also: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Russia) (List of ecoregions in Russia) List of ecoregions in Russia  Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_desert) (Polar desert) polar deserts , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tundra) (Tundra) tundra , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest-tundra) (Forest-tundra) forest-tundra , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiga) (Taiga) taiga , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests) (Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests) mixed and broadleaf forest , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_steppe) (Forest steppe) forest steppe , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steppe) (Steppe) steppe , semi-desert, and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subtropics) (Subtropics) subtropics .[ 265]    About half of Russia's territory is forested,[ 250]    and it has the world's largest area of forest.[ 266]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Саблинский_хребет.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugyd_Va_National_Park) (Yugyd Va National Park) Yugyd Va National Park in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komi_Republic) (Komi Republic) Komi Republic is the largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_park) (National park) national park in Europe.[ 252]      Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_plant) (Vascular plant) vascular plants , 2,200 species of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryophyte) (Bryophyte) bryophytes , about 3,000 species of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichen) (Lichen) lichens , 7,000–9,000 species of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae) (Algae) algae , and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna) (Fauna) fauna is composed of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mammals_of_Russia) (List of mammals of Russia) 320 species of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammals) (Mammals) mammals , over (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_birds_of_Russia) (List of birds of Russia) 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibian) (Amphibian) amphibians , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_freshwater_fish_of_Russia) (List of freshwater fish of Russia) 343 species of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freshwater_fish) (Freshwater fish) freshwater fish (high (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism) (Endemism) endemism ), approximately 1,500 species of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltwater_fish) (Saltwater fish) saltwater fishes , 9 species of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclostomata) (Cyclostomata) cyclostomata , and approximately 100–150,000 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate) (Invertebrate) invertebrates (high endemism).[ 265]    [ 267]    Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Data_Book_of_the_Russian_Federation) (Red Data Book of the Russian Federation) Russian Red Data Book .[ 265]     Russia's natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.[ 265]    They include 45 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere_reserve) (Biosphere reserve) biosphere reserves ,[ 268]    64 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_parks_of_Russia) (National parks of Russia) national parks , and 101 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapovednik) (Zapovednik) nature reserves .[ 269]    Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intact_forest_landscape) (Intact forest landscape) intact forest , mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.[ 270]    Russia had a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index) (Forest Landscape Integrity Index) Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries, and the first ranked major nation globally.[ 271]       Government and politics  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Russia) (Politics of Russia) Politics of Russia   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Владимир_Путин_(2025-09-30).jpg)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Putin) (Vladimir Putin) Vladimir Putin  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_Russian_Federation) (President of the Russian Federation) President    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Михаил_Мишустин_(18-11-2025).jpg)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Mishustin) (Mikhail Mishustin) Mikhail Mishustin  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Russian_Federation) (Prime Minister of the Russian Federation) Prime Minister       (./Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images)   Russia, by constitution, is a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_federalism) (Symmetric federalism) symmetric federal republic with a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi-presidential_system) (Semi-presidential system) semi-presidential system , wherein the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Russia) (President of Russia) president is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_state) (Head of state) head of state ,[ 272]    and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Russia) (Prime Minister of Russia) prime minister is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_of_government) (Head of government) head of government .[ 250]    [ 273]    It is officially structured as a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-party_system) (Multi-party system) multi-party (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_democracy) (Representative democracy) representative democracy ,[ 273]    with the federal government composed of three branches:[ 274]     Legislative: The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameralism) (Bicameralism) bicameral (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Assembly_(Russia)) (Federal Assembly (Russia)) Federal Assembly of Russia , made up of the 450-member (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Duma) (State Duma) State Duma and the 170-member (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_Council_(Russia)) (Federation Council (Russia)) Federation Council ,[ 274]    adopts (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_law) (Federal law) federal law , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_war) (Declaration of war) declares war , approves treaties, has the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_of_the_purse) (Power of the purse) power of the purse and the power of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impeachment_in_Russia) (Impeachment in Russia) impeachment of the president.[ 275]     Executive: The president is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Commander-in-Chief_of_the_Russian_Armed_Forces) (Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Armed Forces) commander-in-chief of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces) (Russian Armed Forces) Armed Forces , and appoints the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Russia) (Government of Russia) Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.[ 272]    The president may issue (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decree_of_the_President_of_Russia) (Decree of the President of Russia) decrees of unlimited scope , so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.[ 276]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judiciary_of_Russia) (Judiciary of Russia) Judiciary : The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Russia) (Constitutional Court of Russia) Constitutional Court , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Russia) (Supreme Court of Russia) Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president,[ 274]    interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutionality) (Constitutionality) unconstitutional .[ 277]      The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.[ 278]    [ j]    Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Russia) (United Russia) United Russia is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant-party_system#Eurasia) (Dominant-party system) dominant (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Russia) (List of political parties in Russia) political party in Russia and has been described as "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_tent) (Big tent) big tent " and the "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party_of_power) (Party of power) party of power ".[ 280]    [ 281]     Political history  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chart_Constitution_of_Russia_EN.svg)   A chart of the political system in the modern Russian Federation  While there is scholarly debate over the significance of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veche) (Veche) veche  in the Middle Ages as a representative political body,[ 282]    Russian society has historically been ruled by various forms of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocracy) (Autocracy) autocracy .[ 283]    This pattern of a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralized_government) (Centralized government) centralised ruling system has its roots in the late Middle Ages, with a unified Russian state being established as an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_monarchy) (Absolute monarchy) absolute monarchy in the late 15th century,[ 284]    [ 285]    a governance structure that was followed until the early 20th century.[ 286]    Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, the monarchy was abolished, and the Soviet Union was proclaimed as a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-party_state) (One-party state) one-party (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_state) (Communist state) communist state until its collapse.[ 283]    Brief periods of non-autocratic rule include the short-lived (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government) (Russian Provisional Government) Provisional Government in 1917 established during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_Revolution) (February Revolution) February Revolution , and during the transition of post-Soviet Russia into a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flawed_democracy) (Flawed democracy) flawed democracy during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Boris_Yeltsin) (Presidency of Boris Yeltsin) presidency of Boris Yeltsin in the 1990s.[ 287]    [ 288]    [ 289]    (Page / location: 223) :  223    In the 21st century, following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_under_Vladimir_Putin) (Russia under Vladimir Putin) presidencies of Vladimir Putin and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidency_of_Dmitry_Medvedev) (Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev) Dmitry Medvedev , Russia has experienced significant (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_backsliding) (Democratic backsliding) democratic backsliding .[ 289]    (Page / location: 223) :  223   [ 290]    [ 291]    The political system evolved from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_authoritarianism) (Electoral authoritarianism) electoral authoritarianism into a consolidated (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritarian_regime) (Authoritarian regime) authoritarian regime .[ 289]    (Page / location: 323) :  323   [ 292]    Some political scientists have characterised Putin as the head of a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatorship) (Dictatorship) dictatorship ,[ 293]    [ 294]    [ 295]    or a personalist regime.[ 296]    [ 297]    [ 292]    Putin's second tenure as president has led to further autocratization,[ 289]    (Page / location: 512) :  512   [ 298]    (Page / location: 80–81) :  80–81   which has been the most significant since the Soviet era,[ 299]    [ 300]    with some authors suggesting a regeneration of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism) (Totalitarianism) totalitarian elements.[ 301]    [ 302]    Putin's ruling policies are generally referred to as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putinism) (Putinism) Putinism .[ 303]      Political divisions  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_divisions_of_Russia) (Political divisions of Russia) Political divisions of Russia  Russia, by constitution, is a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_federalism) (Symmetric federalism) symmetric federation with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration. Unlike the Soviet (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_federalism) (Asymmetric federalism) asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but regions do not have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.[ 304]     The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_subjects_of_Russia) (Federal subjects of Russia) federal subjects [ k]    have equal representation—two delegates each—in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_Council_(Russia)) (Federation Council (Russia)) Federation Council , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_house) (Upper house) upper house of the Federal Assembly.[ 275]    However, they differ in the degree of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division) (Autonomous administrative division) autonomy they enjoy.[ 305]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_districts_of_Russia) (Federal districts of Russia) federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.[ 306]    Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.[ 307]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_federal_subjects_of_Russia_(2022),_disputed_Crimea_and_Donbass.svg)     Federal subjects Governance  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      46 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oblasts_of_Russia) (Oblasts of Russia) oblasts   The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.[ 308]      (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      22 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republics_of_Russia) (Republics of Russia) republics   Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Russia) (Ethnic groups in Russia) ethnic minority , and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.[ 309]      (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      9 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krais_of_Russia) (Krais of Russia) krais   For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.[ 310]      (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      4 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia) (Autonomous okrugs of Russia) autonomous okrugs   Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.[ 311]      (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      3 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_cities_of_Russia) (Federal cities of Russia) federal cities   Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevastopol) (Sevastopol) Sevastopol in Russian-occupied Ukraine).[ 312]      (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      1 autonomous oblast  The only autonomous oblast is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_Autonomous_Oblast) (Jewish Autonomous Oblast) Jewish Autonomous Oblast .[ 313]         Foreign relations  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Russia) (Foreign relations of Russia) Foreign relations of Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russian-list-of-unfriendly-countries.svg)   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959)      Countries on Russia's "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unfriendly_countries_and_territories_list) (Unfriendly countries and territories list) unfriendly countries and territories list " The list includes Russia's geopolitical rivals—member states of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_European_Union) (Member states of the European Union) European Union and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_NATO) (Member states of NATO) NATO and their allies—that have imposed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War) (International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War) sanctions against it for its invasion of Ukraine.  Russia has the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_diplomatic_missions) (List of countries by number of diplomatic missions) sixth-largest diplomatic network in the world as of 2024 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2024)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  . It maintains diplomatic relations with 187 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations) (Member states of the United Nations) United Nations member states , two (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition) (List of states with limited recognition) partially-recognised states ,[ 314]    and two (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations#Observers_and_non-members) (Member states of the United Nations) United Nations observer states , along with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_embassies) (Russian embassies) 143 embassies .[ 315]    As the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_of_the_Soviet_Union) (Succession of the Soviet Union) legal successor of the Soviet Union ,[ 316]    Russia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_and_the_United_Nations) (Soviet Union and the United Nations) retains its seat as a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council) (Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council) permanent member of the United Nations Security Council .[ 317]    It is generally described by political analysts as a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_power) (Great power) great power .[ 318]    [ 319]    [ 320]    [ 321]    Russia is also a former (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superpower) (Superpower) superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.[ 173]    In the 21st century, many scholars view its global influence as being in decline.[ 322]    [ 323]    Russia is a member state of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G20) (G20) G20 , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe) (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe) OSCE , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS) (BRICS) BRICS , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WTO) (WTO) WTO , and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia-Pacific_Economic_Cooperation) (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation) APEC ; and the leading member state of organisations such as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States) (Commonwealth of Independent States) CIS ,[ 324]    the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Eurasian Economic Union) EAEU ,[ 325]    the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organisation) (Collective Security Treaty Organisation) CSTO ,[ 326]    and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation) (Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) SCO .[ 327]    It was also a member state of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G8) (G8) G8 (now the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G7) (G7) G7 ) and part of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_in_the_Council_of_Europe) (Russia in the Council of Europe) Council of Europe before its expulsion from the two groups in 2014 and 2022, respectively.[ 328]    [ 329]     Russia maintains close relations (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus–Russia_relations) (Belarus–Russia relations) with neighbouring Belarus , which is a part of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_State) (Union State) Union State , a supranational confederation of the two states.[ 330]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia) (Serbia) Serbia has been a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia–Serbia_relations) (Russia–Serbia relations) historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.[ 331]    From the 21st century, relations between Russia and China have significantly (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China–Russia_relations) (China–Russia relations) strengthened bilaterally and economically due to shared political interests.[ 332]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) (India) India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India–Russia_relations) (India–Russia relations) strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era.[ 333]    Russia wields significant political influence across the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geopolitics) (Geopolitics) geopolitically important (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Caucasus) (South Caucasus) South Caucasus and Central Asia,[ 334]    described in Russia as the "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_abroad) (Near abroad) near abroad ",[ 316]    [ 335]    while foreign political analysts have described the two regions as being part of Russia's "backyard".[ 336]    [ 337]     Russia shares (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia–Turkey_relations) (Russia–Turkey relations) a complex strategic, energy, and defence relationship with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey) (Turkey) Turkey .[ 338]    It maintains (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran–Russia_relations) (Iran–Russia relations) cordial relations with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran) (Iran) Iran , as it is a strategic and economic ally.[ 339]    Russia has also significantly developed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea–Russia_relations) (North Korea–Russia relations) its relations with North Korea following its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with increased defence co-operation.[ 340]    At the same time, its relations (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia–Ukraine_relations) (Russia–Ukraine relations) with neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—specifically the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia–United_States_relations) (Russia–United States relations) United States and the countries of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia–European_Union_relations) (Russia–European Union relations) European Union and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO–Russia_relations) (NATO–Russia relations) NATO —have collapsed.[ 341]    [ 342]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2019_Foto_de_família_dos_Líderes_do_G20.jpg)   Putin with G20 counterparts in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka) (Osaka) Osaka , 2019  In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_power) (Regional power) regional dominance in Europe and increasing its international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. It has initiated military interventions in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Soviet_states) (Post-Soviet states) post-Soviet states of Georgia and Ukraine, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_intervention_in_the_Syrian_civil_war) (Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war) as well as in Syria during its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_civil_war) (Syrian civil war) prolonged civil war in a bid to increase its influence in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East) (Middle East) Middle East ,[ 343]    and achieve its great power ambitions.[ 344]    [ 345]    Two-thirds of the global population, specifically the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_country) (Developing country) developing countries of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_South) (Global South) Global South , are either neutral or leaning towards Russia politically.[ 346]    [ 347]    Russian state-funded (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagner_Group) (Wagner Group) Wagner Group has been (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagner_Group_activities_in_Africa) (Wagner Group activities in Africa) deployed in Africa ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_Corps_(Russia)) (Africa Corps (Russia)) Africa Corps ),[ 348]    [ 349]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagner_Group_activities_in_Syria) (Wagner Group activities in Syria) in Syria ;[ 350]    to maintain political stability in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failed_state) (Failed state) failed states through military projection and exploit local natural resources.[ 351]    Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic) (Arctic) Arctic ,[ 352]    the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia–Pacific) (Asia–Pacific) Asia–Pacific ,[ 353]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_America) (Latin America) Latin America .[ 354]    It has also continued using subversive tactics in its rival countries to project its geopolitical power,[ 355]    [ 318]    such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberwarfare_by_Russia) (Cyberwarfare by Russia) cyberwarfare , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_disinformation) (Russian disinformation) disinformation campaigns ,[ 356]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabotage) (Sabotage) sabotage attacks,[ 357]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_assassinations) (List of Russian assassinations) assassination attempts ,[ 358]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violations_of_non-combatant_airspaces_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (Violations of non-combatant airspaces during the Russian invasion of Ukraine) airspace violations ,[ 359]    electoral interferences,[ 360]    nuclear sabre-rattling,[ 361]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_hybrid_warfare) (Russian hybrid warfare) hybrid warfare .[ 362]      Military  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Armed_Forces) (Russian Armed Forces) Russian Armed Forces  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sukhoi_Design_Bureau,_054,_Sukhoi_T-50_(Su-57_prototype)_(49581303977).jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-57) (Sukhoi Su-57) Sukhoi Su-57 , a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth-generation_fighter) (Fifth-generation fighter) fifth-generation fighter of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Air_Force) (Russian Air Force) Russian Air Force [ 363]      The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Ground_Forces) (Russian Ground Forces) Ground Forces , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Navy) (Russian Navy) Navy , and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Aerospace_Force) (Russian Aerospace Force) Aerospace Forces —and there are also two independent arms of service: the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Missile_Troops) (Strategic Missile Troops) Strategic Missile Troops and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Airborne_Troops) (Russian Airborne Troops) Airborne Troops .[ 364]    [ 250]    As of 2025 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2025)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , the military have 1.1 million active-duty personnel, which is the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_military_and_paramilitary_personnel) (List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel) fifth-largest , and about 1.5 million (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_reserve_force) (Military reserve force) reserve personnel .[ 365]    It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conscription) (Conscription) drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.[ 250]     Russia is among the five (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons) (Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons) recognised (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons) (List of states with nuclear weapons) nuclear-weapons states , with the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction) (Russia and weapons of mass destruction) owned by Russia .[ 366]    Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile_submarine) (Ballistic missile submarine) ballistic missile submarines ,[ 367]    and is one of the only three countries operating (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_bomber) (Strategic bomber) strategic bombers .[ 368]    As of 2025 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2025)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , Russia maintains the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_military_expenditures) (List of countries by military expenditures) third-highest military expenditure , spending $190 billion, corresponding to about 7.5% of its GDP.[ 369]      It was also the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_arms_exports) (List of countries by arms exports) third-largest arms exporter in 2020–2024,[ 370]    and has (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Russia) (Defense industry of Russia) a large and indigenous defence industry , which produces the majority of its military equipment.[ 371]    [ 372]    [ 373]       Law, corruption and crime  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_Russia) (Law of Russia) Law of Russia , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Russia) (Law enforcement in Russia) Law enforcement in Russia , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_in_Russia) (Crime in Russia) Crime in Russia , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_in_Russia) (Corruption in Russia) Corruption in Russia  Post-Soviet Russia under the regime of Vladimir Putin has been governed by a form of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crony_capitalism) (Crony capitalism) crony capitalism .[ 374]    [ 375]    Its political system has been variously described as a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleptocracy) (Kleptocracy) kleptocracy ,[ 376]    an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligarchy) (Oligarchy) oligarchy ,[ 377]    and a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutocracy) (Plutocracy) plutocracy .[ 374]    As of 2025 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2025)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , it is the lowest rated European country in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_International) (Transparency International) Transparency International 's annual (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index) (Corruption Perceptions Index) Corruption Perceptions Index , ranking 157th out of the 180 countries listed.[ 378]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexei_Navalny_marching_in_2017.jpg)   Opposition leader (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Navalny) (Alexei Navalny) Alexei Navalny leading protestors in Moscow in the nationwide (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017–2018_Russian_protests) (2017–2018 Russian protests) anti-corruption protests of 2017–2018   Corruption has significantly increased following the collapse of the Soviet Union,[ 379]    and is seen as a significant issue in society.[ 380]    [ 381]    It affects various sectors, including the economy,[ 380]    the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Russia) (Government of Russia) government ,[ 379]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Russia) (Law enforcement in Russia) law enforcement ,[ 382]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_in_Russia) (Healthcare in Russia) healthcare ,[ 383]    [ 384]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Russia) (Education in Russia) education ,[ 385]    and the military.[ 386]    Russia's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informal_economy) (Informal economy) shadow economy was estimated to be about 44% of the total GDP in 2018.[ 387]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_penal_military_units_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (Russian penal military units during the Russian invasion of Ukraine) Penal military units have been deployed as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_troops) (Shock troops) storm troops during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War since 2022, such as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm-Z) (Storm-Z) Storm-Z and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storm-V) (Storm-V) Storm-V units.[ 388]    [ 389]    According to estimates by the BBC, around 48,000 prisoners were recruited to fight for the Wagner Group.[ 390]     The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the constitution. Statutes, such as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Civil_Code) (Russian Civil Code) Russian Civil Code and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Criminal_Code) (Russian Criminal Code) Russian Criminal Code , are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.[ 391]    [ 392]    Russia has the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_incarceration_rate) (List of countries by incarceration rate) largest incarcerated population in Europe, and the fifth-largest incarcerated population in the world.[ 393]    Its incarceration rate is among the highest in Europe,[ 394]    although the number has fallen steadily, by 59% since 2000.[ 393]    As of 2021 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2021)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , Russia's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_intentional_homicide_rate) (List of countries by intentional homicide rate) intentional homicide rate stood at 6.8 per 100,000 people.[ 395]    In 2023, Russia had the world's second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, was described as a key hub for human trafficking, and was ranked first in Europe and 19th globally in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Organized_Crime_Index) (Global Organized Crime Index) Global Organized Crime Index .[ 396]      Human rights  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_in_Russia) (Human rights in Russia) Human rights in Russia  Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_group) (Human rights group) human rights groups . In particular, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty_International) (Amnesty International) Amnesty International and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Rights_Watch) (Human Rights Watch) Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.[ 397]    [ 398]     Since 2004, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_House) (Freedom House) Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_in_the_World) (Freedom in the World) Freedom in the World  survey.[ 399]    Since 2011, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economist_Intelligence_Unit) (Economist Intelligence Unit) Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy_Index) (Democracy Index) Democracy Index , ranking it 148th out of 167 countries in 2025.[ 400]    In regards to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_freedom_in_Russia) (Media freedom in Russia) media freedom , Russia was ranked 172th out of 180 countries in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporters_Without_Borders) (Reporters Without Borders) Reporters Without Borders ' (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Press_Freedom_Index) (Press Freedom Index) Press Freedom Index for 2026.[ 401]    The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_rights_defender) (Human rights defender) human rights activists for (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_Russia) (Elections in Russia) unfair elections ,[ 402]    crackdowns on (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opposition_to_Vladimir_Putin_in_Russia) (Opposition to Vladimir Putin in Russia) opposition political parties and protests ,[ 403]    [ 404]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_undesirable_organizations_law) (Russian undesirable organizations law) persecution of non-governmental organisations and enforced suppression and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_journalists_killed_in_Russia) (List of journalists killed in Russia) killings of independent journalists ,[ 405]    [ 406]    [ 407]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Censorship_in_the_Russian_Federation) (Censorship in the Russian Federation) censorship of mass media and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_censorship_in_Russia) (Internet censorship in Russia) internet .[ 408]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Protest_against_the_invasion_of_Ukraine_(Yekaterinburg,_February_24,_2022).jpg)   Following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine) 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-war_protests_in_Russia_(2022–present)) (Anti-war protests in Russia (2022–present)) anti-war protests broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.[ 409]      Muslims, especially (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salafi_movement) (Salafi movement) Salafis , have faced persecution in Russia.[ 410]    [ 411]    To quash the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurgency_in_the_North_Caucasus) (Insurgency in the North Caucasus) insurgency in the North Caucasus , Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,[ 412]    arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians.[ 413]    [ 414]    In (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagestan) (Dagestan) Dagestan , some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.[ 415]    [ 416]    Chechens and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingush_people) (Ingush people) Ingush in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_prisons) (Russian prisons) Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.[ 417]    During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_filtration_camps_for_Ukrainians) (Russian filtration camps for Ukrainians) filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filtration_camp_system_in_Chechnya) (Filtration camp system in Chechnya) those used in the Chechen Wars .[ 418]    [ 419]    Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_2022_war_censorship_laws) (Russian 2022 war censorship laws) laws adopted that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.[ 420]     Russia has introduced several restrictions on (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_in_Russia) (LGBTQ rights in Russia) LGBTQ rights . In 2013, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_anti-LGBTQ_law) (Russian anti-LGBTQ law) an anti-LGBTQ law banning "gay propaganda" was unanimously passed by the State Duma and the Federation Council, later being signed into law by Vladimir Putin.[ 421]    In 2020, the Russian parliament legalised a constitutional ban on (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_Russia) (Recognition of same-sex unions in Russia) same-sex marriage ,[ 422]    and in 2021 the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Russia)) (Ministry of Justice (Russia)) Ministry of Justice designated the LGBTQ rights group (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_LGBT_Network) (Russian LGBT Network) Russian LGBT Network as a "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_agent_(Russia)) (Foreign agent (Russia)) foreign agent ".[ 423]    In 2022, further amendments were made to the 2013 anti-LGBTQ law.[ 424]    In 2023, the Russian parliament passed a bill banning (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_reassignment_surgery) (Gender reassignment surgery) gender reassignment surgery for (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgender) (Transgender) transgender people and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Russia) (Supreme Court of Russia) Supreme Court of Russia banned the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBTQ_movements) (LGBTQ movements) international LGBTQ movement as "extremist", outlawing it in the country.[ 425]    [ 426]    In 2024, the Supreme Court issued the first convictions from the latter ruling.[ 427]       Economy  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Russia) (Economy of Russia) Economy of Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Further information: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_Russian_Federation) (Economic history of the Russian Federation) Economic history of the Russian Federation and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation_in_Russia) (Taxation in Russia) Taxation in Russia  Russia has a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank_high-income_economy) (World Bank high-income economy) high-income ,[ 428]    industrialised,[ 429]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_economy) (Mixed economy) mixed (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_economy) (Market economy) market-oriented economy following a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_therapy_(economics)) (Shock therapy (economics)) turbulent transition from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy) (Planned economy) Soviet planned model during the 1990s.[ 430]    [ 431]    [ 432]    [ 433]    According to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund) (International Monetary Fund) International Monetary Fund , it has the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)) (List of countries by GDP (nominal)) ninth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)) (List of countries by GDP (PPP)) fourth-largest economy by GDP ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purchasing_power_parity) (Purchasing power parity) PPP ).[ 10]    As of 2023 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2023)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_sector_of_the_economy) (Tertiary sector of the economy) service sector accounts for roughly 57% of total GDP, followed by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_sector) (Industrial sector) industrial sector (30%), while the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_sector) (Agricultural sector) agricultural sector is the smallest, at 3% of total GDP.[ 250]    It has a labour force of about 72 million, which is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_labour_force) (List of countries by labour force) ninth-largest in the world.[ 434]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_largest_trading_partners_of_Russia) (List of the largest trading partners of Russia) Russia's largest trading partner is China.[ 435]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moscow-City_2025.jpg)   The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_International_Business_Center) (Moscow International Business Center) Moscow International Business Center   Russia's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_development_(economics)) (Human development (economics)) human development is (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_Human_Development_Index) (List of countries by Human Development Index) ranked as "very high" in the annual (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index) (Human Development Index) Human Development Index .[ 436]    Roughly 70% of Russia's total GDP is driven by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_consumption_expenditure) (Final consumption expenditure) final consumption ,[ 437]    and the country has the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_consumer_markets) (List of largest consumer markets) twelfth-largest consumer market .[ 438]    According to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes) (Forbes) Forbes  , Russia has the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_number_of_billionaires) (List of countries by number of billionaires) fifth-highest number of billionaires in the world.[ 439]    However, its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_income_equality) (List of countries by income equality) income inequality remains comparatively high compared to other developed countries.[ 440]    The variance of natural resources among its federal subjects has also led to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_federal_subjects_of_Russia_by_GDP_per_capita) (List of federal subjects of Russia by GDP per capita) regional economic disparities .[ 441]    [ 442]    High (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_in_Russia) (Corruption in Russia) levels of corruption ,[ 443]    declining oil export revenues,[ 444]    a shrinking labour force,[ 445]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_capital_flight) (Human capital flight) human capital flight ,[ 446]    and an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aging_of_Russia) (Aging of Russia) aging and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Russia) (Demographics of Russia) declining population also remain major barriers to future economic growth.[ 447]    [ 448]     Following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine) 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , the country has faced (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_sanctions_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (International sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine) extensive sanctions and other negative financial actions from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_world) (Western world) Western world and its allies which have the aim of isolating the Russian economy from the Western financial system.[ 234]    However, Russia has completed its transition into a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_economy) (War economy) war economy ,[ 449]    and has shown resilience to such measures broadly, maintaining economic stability and growth—driven primarily by high (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_with_highest_military_expenditures) (List of countries with highest military expenditures) military expenditure ,[ 450]    rising (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Household_final_consumption_expenditure) (Household final consumption expenditure) household consumption and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_federal_subjects_by_average_wage) (List of Russian federal subjects by average wage) wages ,[ 451]    low (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unemployment) (Unemployment) unemployment ,[ 452]    and increased (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_spending) (Government spending) government spending .[ 453]    Yet, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflation) (Inflation) inflation has remained comparatively high,[ 454]    with experts predicting the sanctions will have a long-term negative effect on the Russian economy.[ 455]    Additionally, the international sanctions have led Russia to become heavily economically and technologically dependent on China.[ 456]    [ 457]     Transport and energy  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Russia) (Transport in Russia) Transport in Russia and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_in_Russia) (Energy in Russia) Energy in Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Russia) (Rail transport in Russia) Railway transport in Russia is mostly controlled by the state-run (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Railways) (Russian Railways) Russian Railways . The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_rail_transport_network_size) (List of countries by rail transport network size) third-longest , exceeding 87,000  km (54,100  mi) .[ 458]    As of 2019 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2019)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , Russia has the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_road_network_size) (List of countries by road network size) fifth-largest road network , with over 1.5 million km of roads.[ 459]    However, its road density is among the world's lowest, in part to its vast land area.[ 460]    Russia's inland waterways are the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_waterways_length) (List of countries by waterways length) longest in the world , totalling 102,000  km (63,380  mi) .[ 461]    It has over (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Russia) (List of airports in Russia) 900 airports ,[ 462]    ranking seventh in the world, of which the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_busiest_airports_in_Russia) (List of the busiest airports in Russia) busiest is (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheremetyevo_International_Airport) (Sheremetyevo International Airport) Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. The largest ports include the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Novorossiysk) (Port of Novorossiysk) Port of Novorossiysk , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Port_of_Saint_Petersburg) (Great Port of Saint Petersburg) Great Port of Saint Petersburg and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Vladivostok) (Port of Vladivostok) Port of Vladivostok .[ 463]     (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1349637415/mw-parser-output/.tmulti)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VL_85-022_container_train.jpg)     The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway) (Trans-Siberian Railway) Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladivostok) (Vladivostok) Vladivostok .[ 464]        (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Airbus_A319-112,_CSA_-_Czech_Airlines_AN2166020.jpg)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheremetyevo_International_Airport) (Sheremetyevo International Airport) Sheremetyevo International Airport is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_busiest_airports_in_Russia) (List of the busiest airports in Russia) busiest airport in Russia  .     Russia has one of the world's largest amounts of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_energy_resources) (World energy resources) energy resources throughout its vast landmass, particularly (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas) (Natural gas) natural gas and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_and_gas_reserves_and_resource_quantification) (Oil and gas reserves and resource quantification) oil , which play a crucial role in its energy self-sufficiency and exports.[ 430]    It has been widely described (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_as_an_energy_superpower) (Russia as an energy superpower) as an energy superpower .[ 465]    Russia has the world's largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_proven_reserves) (List of countries by natural gas proven reserves) proven gas reserves ,[ 466]    the second-largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_coal_reserves) (List of countries by coal reserves) coal reserves ,[ 467]    the eighth-largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_proven_oil_reserves) (List of countries by proven oil reserves) proven oil reserves ,[ 468]    and the largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_shale_reserves) (Oil shale reserves) oil shale reserves in Europe.[ 469]    As of 2023 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2023)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , it is also the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_production) (List of countries by natural gas production) second-largest producer [ 470]    and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_natural_gas_exports) (List of countries by natural gas exports) third-largest exporter of natural gas,[ 471]    as well as the second-largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_production) (List of countries by oil production) producer and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_oil_exports) (List of countries by oil exports) exporter of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_oil) (Crude oil) crude oil .[ 472]    Russia's large oil and gas sector accounted for 30% of its federal budget revenues in 2024, down from 50% in the mid-2010s, suggesting economic diversification.[ 473]     Russia is the world's third-largest energy producer as of 2023 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2023)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  .[ 474]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel) (Fossil fuel) Fossil fuels account for over 64% of energy production and 87% of energy consumption.[ 475]    Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of the energy production and 42% of electricity consumption.[ 475]    Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant) (Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant) first nuclear power plant in 1954, and remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor) (Fast-neutron reactor) fast neutron reactors .[ 476]    Russia is the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country) (Nuclear power by country) fourth-largest nuclear energy producer . Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.[ 476]    Russia is the sole country that builds and operates (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear-powered_icebreaker) (Nuclear-powered icebreaker) nuclear-powered icebreakers ,[ 477]    which ease navigation along the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Sea_Route) (Northern Sea Route) Northern Sea Route ,[ 477]    (Page / location: 192) :  192   and aid in utilising its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_policy_of_Russia) (Arctic policy of Russia) Arctic policy in its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_shelf_of_Russia) (Continental shelf of Russia) continental shelf .[ 478]     Russia joined the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Agreement) (Paris Agreement) Paris Agreement on (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change) (Climate change) climate change in 2015, and ratified the agreement in 2019.[ 479]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_Russia) (Greenhouse gas emissions by Russia) Its greenhouse gas emissions are the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions) (List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions) fourth-largest in the world as of 2023 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2023)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  .[ 480]    Coal accounts for over 10% of its energy consumption.[ 475]    Russia is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity#World_hydroelectric_capacity) (Hydroelectricity) fifth-largest hydroelectric producer as of 2022 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2022)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  ,[ 481]    with hydroelectric power contributing almost a fifth to the total energy generation (17%).[ 475]    Though it is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_renewable_electricity_production) (List of countries by renewable electricity production) eighth-largest renewable energy producer as of 2023 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2023)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , the use and development of other (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy) (Renewable energy) renewable energy resources remain negligible,[ 475]    as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_transition) (Energy transition) renewable energy transition .[ 482]      Agriculture and fishery  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Russia) (Agriculture in Russia) Agriculture in Russia and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Russia) (Fishing industry in Russia) Fishing industry in Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wheat_Tomsk.jpg)   Wheat in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomsk_Oblast) (Tomsk Oblast) Tomsk Oblast , Siberia  Agriculture, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry_in_Russia) (Forestry in Russia) forestry and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Russia) (Fishing industry in Russia) fishing contributes about 3.3% of the country's total GDP as of 2023 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2023)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  .[ 483]    It has the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use_statistics_by_country) (Land use statistics by country) fourth-largest cultivated area , at 1,265,267 square kilometres (488,522  sq  mi) . However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_land) (Agricultural land) agricultural ,[ 250]    with an additional 7.4% being (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_land) (Arable land) arable .[ 484]    The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breadbasket) (Breadbasket) breadbasket " of Europe.[ 485]    More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonfood_crop) (Nonfood crop) industrial crops , vegetables, and fruits.[ 486]    The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland.[ 486]    Russia is the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_wheat_exports) (List of countries by wheat exports) largest exporter of wheat and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_barley_production) (List of countries by barley production) largest producer of barley and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_producing_countries_of_agricultural_commodities) (List of largest producing countries of agricultural commodities) buckwheat .[ 435]    [ 487]    It is also among the largest exporters of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize) (Maize) maize and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_oil) (Sunflower oil) sunflower oil , as well as the leading producer of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilizer) (Fertilizer) fertiliser .[ 487]    [ 435]     Various analysts of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation) (Climate change adaptation) climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.[ 488]    Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_industry_by_country) (Fishing industry by country) sixth-largest fishing industry , capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.[ 489]    It is home to the world's finest caviar, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beluga_(sturgeon)) (Beluga (sturgeon)) beluga , and produces about one-third of all canned fish and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.[ 486]      Science and technology  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Russia) (Science and technology in Russia) Science and technology in Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   See also: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation) (Timeline of Russian innovation) Timeline of Russian innovation , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_scientists) (List of Russian scientists) List of Russian scientists , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors) (List of Russian inventors) List of Russian inventors  Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development) (Research and development) research and development in 2019, with the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_research_and_development_spending) (List of countries by research and development spending) tenth-highest budget .[ 490]    It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers.[ 491]    Since 1904, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_by_country) (List of Nobel laureates by country) Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics) (Nobel Prize in Physics) physics , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry) (Nobel Prize in Chemistry) chemistry , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_medicine) (Nobel Prize in medicine) medicine , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences) (Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences) economy , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature) (Nobel Prize in Literature) literature and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize) (Nobel Peace Prize) peace .[ 492]    Russia ranked 60th in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index) (Global Innovation Index) Global Innovation Index in 2025.[ 493]    [ 494]    [ 495]     Since the times of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Lobachevsky) (Nikolay Lobachevsky) Nikolay Lobachevsky , who pioneered the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry) (Non-Euclidean geometry) non-Euclidean geometry , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pafnuty_Chebyshev) (Pafnuty Chebyshev) Pafnuty Chebyshev , a prominent tutor, Russian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_mathematicians) (List of Russian mathematicians) mathematicians became among the world's most influential.[ 496]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Mendeleev) (Dmitry Mendeleev) Dmitry Mendeleev invented the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table) (Periodic table) Periodic table , the main framework of modern (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry) (Chemistry) chemistry .[ 497]    Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fields_Medal_winners) (Fields Medal winners) Fields Medal . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigori_Perelman) (Grigori Perelman) Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennium_Prize_Problems) (Millennium Prize Problems) Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poincaré_conjecture) (Poincaré conjecture) Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.[ 498]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:M.V._Lomonosov_by_L.Miropolskiy_after_G.C.Prenner_(1787,_RAN).jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov) (Mikhail Lomonosov) Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath) (Polymath) polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artist  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov) (Alexander Stepanovich Popov) Alexander Popov was among the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention_of_radio) (Invention of radio) inventors of radio ,[ 499]    while (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Basov) (Nikolai Basov) Nikolai Basov and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov) (Alexander Prokhorov) Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser) (Laser) laser and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maser) (Maser) maser .[ 500]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleg_Losev) (Oleg Losev) Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_junction) (Semiconductor junction) semiconductor junctions , and discovered (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode) (Light-emitting diode) light-emitting diodes .[ 501]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Vernadsky) (Vladimir Vernadsky) Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geochemistry) (Geochemistry) geochemistry , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemistry) (Biogeochemistry) biogeochemistry , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiometric_dating) (Radiometric dating) radiogeology .[ 502]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Élie_Metchnikoff) (Élie Metchnikoff) Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunology) (Immunology) immunology .[ 503]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov) (Ivan Pavlov) Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_conditioning) (Classical conditioning) classical conditioning .[ 504]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Landau) (Lev Landau) Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_physics) (Theoretical physics) theoretical physics .[ 505]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov) (Nikolai Vavilov) Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vavilov_center) (Vavilov center) centres of origin of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticulture) (Horticulture) cultivated plants.[ 506]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trofim_Lysenko) (Trofim Lysenko) Trofim Lysenko was known mainly for (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysenkoism) (Lysenkoism) Lysenkoism .[ 507]    Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Émigrés) (Émigrés) émigrés . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Sikorsky) (Igor Sikorsky) Igor Sikorsky was an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aviation_pioneers) (List of aviation pioneers) aviation pioneer .[ 508]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Zworykin) (Vladimir Zworykin) Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoscope) (Iconoscope) iconoscope and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinescope) (Kinescope) kinescope television systems.[ 509]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_Dobzhansky) (Theodosius Dobzhansky) Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_biology) (Evolutionary biology) evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)) (Modern synthesis (20th century)) modern synthesis .[ 510]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gamow) (George Gamow) George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang) (Big Bang) Big Bang theory.[ 511]     Space exploration  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mir_on_12_June_1998edit1.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mir) (Mir) Mir , Russian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station) (Space station) space station that operated in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit) (Low Earth orbit) LEO   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roscosmos) (Roscosmos) Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_technology) (Space technology) space technology and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration) (Space exploration) space exploration can be traced back to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Tsiolkovsky) (Konstantin Tsiolkovsky) Konstantin Tsiolkovsky , the father of theoretical (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronautics) (Astronautics) astronautics , whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey_Korolyov) (Sergey Korolyov) Sergey Korolyov , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentin_Glushko) (Valentin Glushko) Valentin Glushko , and many others who contributed to the success of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_space_program) (Soviet space program) Soviet space programme in the early stages of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Race) (Space Race) Space Race and beyond.[ 512]    (Page / location: 6–7, 333) :  6–7, 333    In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite) (Satellite) satellite , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_1) (Sputnik 1) Sputnik 1  , was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin) (Yuri Gagarin) Yuri Gagarin . Many other Soviet and Russian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration_records) (Space exploration records) space exploration records ensued. In 1963, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentina_Tereshkova) (Valentina Tereshkova) Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_space) (Women in space) woman in space , having flown a solo mission on (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vostok_6) (Vostok 6) Vostok 6 .[ 513]    In 1965, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Leonov) (Alexei Leonov) Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacewalk) (Spacewalk) spacewalk , exiting the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_capsule) (Space capsule) space capsule during (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voskhod_2) (Voskhod 2) Voskhod 2 .[ 514]     In 1957, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laika) (Laika) Laika , a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs) (Soviet space dogs) Soviet space dog , became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_2) (Sputnik 2) Sputnik 2 .[ 515]    In 1966, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_9) (Luna 9) Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_object) (Astronomical object) celestial body , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon) (Moon) Moon .[ 516]    In 1968, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zond_5) (Zond 5) Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.[ 517]    In 1970, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venera_7) (Venera 7) Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus) (Venus) Venus .[ 518]    In 1971, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_3) (Mars 3) Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars) (Mars) Mars .[ 519]    (Page / location: 34–60) :  34–60   During the same period, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunokhod-1) (Lunokhod-1) Lunokhod 1  became the first (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration_rover) (Space exploration rover) space exploration rover ,[ 520]    while (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salyut_1) (Salyut 1) Salyut 1  became the world's first (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_station) (Space station) space station .[ 521]     As of 2023 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2023)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , Russia has 181 active satellites in space, which is the third-highest in the world.[ 522]    Between the final flight of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle) (Space Shuttle) Space Shuttle programme in 2011 and the 2020 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX) (SpaceX) SpaceX 's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crew_Dragon_Demo-2) (Crew Dragon Demo-2) first crewed mission , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soyuz_(rocket_family)) (Soyuz (rocket family)) Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station) (International Space Station) ISS .[ 523]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna_25) (Luna 25) Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luna-Glob) (Luna-Glob) Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.[ 524]       Tourism  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_Russia) (Tourism in Russia) Tourism in Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peterhof_Palace,_Saint_Petersburg,_Russia_(44408938295).jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterhof_Palace) (Peterhof Palace) Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg, a UNESCO (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Site) (World Heritage Site) World Heritage Site   Most foreign tourists come from China.[ 525]    Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Ring_of_Russia) (Golden Ring of Russia) Golden Ring of Russia , a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_route) (Theme route) theme route of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains) (Caucasus Mountains) Caucasus Mountains ,[ 526]    and journeys on the famous (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway) (Trans-Siberian Railway) Trans-Siberian Railway .[ 527]    Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Square) (Red Square) Red Square , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterhof_Palace) (Peterhof Palace) Peterhof Palace , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan_Kremlin) (Kazan Kremlin) Kazan Kremlin , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Lavra_of_St._Sergius) (Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius) Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.[ 528]     Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megacity) (Megacity) megacity ; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_International_Business_Center) (Moscow International Business Center) modern skyscrapers .[ 529]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg) (Saint Petersburg) Saint Petersburg , the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Nights_Festival) (White Nights Festival) white nights , crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.[ 530]    Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Museum) (Russian Museum) State Russian , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermitage_Museum) (Hermitage Museum) State Hermitage , and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery) (Tretyakov Gallery) Tretyakov Gallery , and for theatres such as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshoi_Theatre) (Bolshoi Theatre) Bolshoi and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariinsky_Theatre) (Mariinsky Theatre) Mariinsky . The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin) (Moscow Kremlin) Moscow Kremlin and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Basil's_Cathedral) (Saint Basil's Cathedral) Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.[ 531]       Demographics  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Russia) (Demographics of Russia) Demographics of Russia , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians) (Russians) Russians , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Russia) (List of cities and towns in Russia) List of cities and towns in Russia , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Russia_by_population) (List of cities and towns in Russia by population) List of cities and towns in Russia by population  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1349637415/mw-parser-output/.tmulti)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russia_Population_Density_Map_2021.png)     Population density of Russian municipalities according to the 2021 census   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ethnic_groups_in_Russia_of_more_than_1_million_people_2010_Census_English.png)     Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over one million according to the 2010 census      (./Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images)   Russia had an estimated population of 146.0 million in 2025 (143.6 million excluding Crimea and Sevastopol),[ 9]    down from 147.2 million in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Russian_census) (2021 Russian census) 2021 census .[ 532]    It is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_European_countries_by_population) (List of European countries by population) most populous country in Europe and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population) (List of countries and dependencies by population) ninth-most populous country in the world. With a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_density) (List of countries by population density) population density of 8.5 inhabitants  per square kilometre (22 inhabitants/mi 2 ) ,[ 533]    Russia is one of the world's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_and_dependencies_by_population_density) (List of countries and dependencies by population density) most sparsely populated countries,[ 250]    with the vast majority of its people concentrated within its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Russia) (European Russia) western part .[ 534]    The country is (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization_by_country) (Urbanization by country) highly urbanised , with two-thirds of the population living in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Russia_by_population) (List of cities and towns in Russia by population) urban areas . As of 2025 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2025)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_fertility_rate) (Total fertility rate) total fertility rate across Russia is estimated to be 1.37 children born per woman,[ 535]    which is below the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replacement_rate) (Replacement rate) replacement rate of 2.1 and among (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependencies_by_total_fertility_rate) (List of sovereign states and dependencies by total fertility rate) the lowest in the world .[ 536]    Subsequently, it has one of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_median_age) (List of countries by median age) oldest populations in the world, with a median age of 41.9 years.[ 250]     Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_rate) (Death rate) death rate exceeding its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_rate) (Birth rate) birth rate , which some analysts have called a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_crisis_of_Russia) (Demographic crisis of Russia) demographic crisis .[ 537]    In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_rates) (Death rates) death rates , increased (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_rates) (Birth rates) birth rates , and increased immigration.[ 538]    However, these population gains have been reversed since 2020, as excessive deaths from the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Russia) (COVID-19 pandemic in Russia) COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history.[ 539]    Following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine) 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , the demographic crisis has deepened,[ 540]    owing to high military fatalities[ 541]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_emigration_during_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (Russian emigration during the Russian invasion of Ukraine) renewed emigration .[ 542]     Russia is a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_state) (Multinational state) multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.[ 543]    There are over (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Russia) (Ethnic groups in Russia) 193 ethnic groups nationwide . In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russians) (Russians) Russians , and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities.[ 544]    Over four-fifths of Russia's population was of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Europe) (Ethnic groups of Europe) European descent —of whom the vast majority were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavs) (Slavs) Slavs ,[ 543]    [ 545]    with a substantial minority of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finno-Ugric_peoples) (Finno-Ugric peoples) Finno-Ugric and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples) (Germanic peoples) Germanic peoples .[ 546]    [ 547]    Russia has the third-largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_Russia) (Immigration to Russia) immigrant population in the world, with over 12 million immigrants residing in the country as of 2019 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2019)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  .[ 548]    The vast majority of the immigrants hail from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Soviet_states) (Post-Soviet states) post-Soviet states , with about half of them being from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Russia) (Ukrainians in Russia) Ukraine and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhs_in_Russia) (Kazakhs in Russia) Kazakhstan as of 2020 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2020)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  .[ 549]         (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Largest_cities_of_Russia) (Template:Largest cities of Russia) (View this template) v   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Largest_cities_of_Russia) (Template talk:Largest cities of Russia) (Discuss this template) t   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Largest_cities_of_Russia) (Special:EditPage/Template:Largest cities of Russia) (Edit this template) e     Largest cities or towns in Russia  2025 estimate[ 550]        (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Russia_by_population) (List of cities in Russia by population) Rank  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Russia) (List of cities in Russia) Name  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_subjects_of_Russia) (Federal subjects of Russia) Federal subject  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Russia_by_population) (List of cities in Russia by population) Pop.  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Russia_by_population) (List of cities in Russia by population) Rank  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Russia) (List of cities in Russia) Name  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_subjects_of_Russia) (Federal subjects of Russia) Federal subject  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Russia_by_population) (List of cities in Russia by population) Pop.   1 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow) (Moscow) Moscow  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow) (Moscow) Moscow  13,274,285 11 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samara) (Samara) Samara  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samara_Oblast) (Samara Oblast) Samara Oblast  1,154,223  2 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg) (Saint Petersburg) Saint Petersburg  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg) (Saint Petersburg) Saint Petersburg  5,652,922 12 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostov-on-Don) (Rostov-on-Don) Rostov-on-Don  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostov_Oblast) (Rostov Oblast) Rostov Oblast  1,143,123  3 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novosibirsk) (Novosibirsk) Novosibirsk  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novosibirsk_Oblast) (Novosibirsk Oblast) Novosibirsk Oblast  1,637,266 13 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omsk) (Omsk) Omsk  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omsk_Oblast) (Omsk Oblast) Omsk Oblast  1,101,367  4 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yekaterinburg) (Yekaterinburg) Yekaterinburg  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sverdlovsk_Oblast) (Sverdlovsk Oblast) Sverdlovsk Oblast  1,548,187 14 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voronezh) (Voronezh) Voronezh  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voronezh_Oblast) (Voronezh Oblast) Voronezh Oblast  1,041,722  5 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazan) (Kazan) Kazan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatarstan) (Tatarstan) Tatarstan  1,329,825 15 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perm,_Russia) (Perm, Russia) Perm  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perm_Krai) (Perm Krai) Perm Krai  1,027,518  6 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnoyarsk) (Krasnoyarsk) Krasnoyarsk  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnoyarsk_Krai) (Krasnoyarsk Krai) Krasnoyarsk Krai  1,211,756 16 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volgograd) (Volgograd) Volgograd  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volgograd_Oblast) (Volgograd Oblast) Volgograd Oblast  1,012,219  7 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod) (Nizhny Novgorod) Nizhny Novgorod  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizhny_Novgorod_Oblast) (Nizhny Novgorod Oblast) Nizhny Novgorod Oblast  1,198,245 17 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saratov) (Saratov) Saratov  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saratov_Oblast) (Saratov Oblast) Saratov Oblast  886,165  8 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelyabinsk) (Chelyabinsk) Chelyabinsk  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chelyabinsk_Oblast) (Chelyabinsk Oblast) Chelyabinsk Oblast  1,176,770 18 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyumen) (Tyumen) Tyumen  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyumen_Oblast) (Tyumen Oblast) Tyumen Oblast  872,077  9 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ufa) (Ufa) Ufa  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashkortostan) (Bashkortostan) Bashkortostan  1,166,098 19 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolyatti) (Tolyatti) Tolyatti  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samara_Oblast) (Samara Oblast) Samara Oblast  662,683  10 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnodar) (Krasnodar) Krasnodar  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krasnodar_Krai) (Krasnodar Krai) Krasnodar Krai  1,154,885 20 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makhachkala) (Makhachkala) Makhachkala  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagestan) (Dagestan) Dagestan  625,322     Language  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language) (Russian language) Russian language and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Russia) (Languages of Russia) Languages of Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1349637415/mw-parser-output/.tmulti)   Minority languages across Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Linguistic_map_of_the_Altaic,_Turkic_and_Uralic_languages_(en).png)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altaic_languages) (Altaic languages) Altaic and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uralic_languages) (Uralic languages) Uralic languages spoken across Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Caucasus-ethnic_en.svg)     The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasus) (North Caucasus) North Caucasus is (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus) (Peoples of the Caucasus) ethno -(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages) (North Caucasian languages) linguistically diverse.[ 551]         (./Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images)   Russian is the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_language) (Official language) official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.[ 3]    It is the most spoken (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_language) (First language) native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languages) (Slavic languages) Slavic language .[ 552]    Russian is one of two official languages aboard the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station) (International Space Station) International Space Station ,[ 553]    as well as one of the six (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations) (Official languages of the United Nations) official languages of the United Nations .[ 552]     Russia is a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingualism#Europe) (Multilingualism) multilingual nation: approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.[ 554]    [ 555]    According to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Census_(2010)) (Russian Census (2010)) Russian Census of 2010 , 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 3.1 million spoke (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatar_language) (Tatar language) Tatar , and 1.1 million spoke (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukrainian_language) (Ukrainian language) Ukrainian .[ 556]    The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_official_languages_in_Russia) (List of official languages in Russia) establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.[ 557]    However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_endangered_languages_in_Russia) (List of endangered languages in Russia) many languages becoming endangered .[ 558]    [ 559]      Religion  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Russia) (Religion in Russia) Religion in Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:День_Святой_Троицы._Престольный_праздник.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Sunday) (Trinity Sunday) Trinity Sunday in Russia; the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church) (Russian Orthodox Church) Russian Orthodox Church has experienced a great revival since the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union) (Dissolution of the Soviet Union) dissolution of the Soviet Union , a country that had a policy of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_atheism) (State atheism) state atheism .  Russia is constitutionally a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secular_state) (Secular state) secular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion.[ 560]    [ 561]    The largest religion is (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Christianity) (Eastern Orthodox Christianity) Eastern Orthodox Christianity , chiefly represented by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church) (Russian Orthodox Church) Russian Orthodox Church ,[ 560]    [ 562]    which is legally recognised for its "special role" in the country's "history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture."[ 561]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity) (Christianity) Christianity , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam) (Islam) Islam , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism) (Judaism) Judaism , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism) (Buddhism) Buddhism are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".[ 563]    [ 564]     Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus) (Peoples of the Caucasus) peoples in the North Caucasus and some (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_peoples) (Turkic peoples) Turkic peoples in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idel-Ural) (Idel-Ural) Volga-Ural region.[ 560]    [ 562]    Large populations of Buddhists are found in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalmykia) (Kalmykia) Kalmykia , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buryatia) (Buryatia) Buryatia , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zabaykalsky_Krai) (Zabaykalsky Krai) Zabaykalsky Krai , and they are the vast majority of the population in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuva) (Tuva) Tuva .[ 562]    A negligible population practices other religions—such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodnovery) (Rodnovery) Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism),[ 565]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assianism) (Assianism) Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),[ 566]    other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringing_Cedars'_Anastasianism) (Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism) Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism ,[ 567]    various movements of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism) (Hinduism) Hinduism ,[ 568]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_shamanism) (Siberian shamanism) Siberian shamanism [ 569]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengrism) (Tengrism) Tengrism , various (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Theosophy) (Neo-Theosophy) Neo-Theosophical movements such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roerichism) (Roerichism) Roerichism —among other faiths.[ 570]    [ 571]    Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country:[ 572]    notably, in 2017 the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah's_Witnesses) (Jehovah's Witnesses) Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.[ 573]     In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(Russia)) (Ministry of Justice (Russia)) Ministry of Justice , published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Believers) (Old Believers) Old Believers , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church) (Catholic Church) Catholics or (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestants) (Protestants) Protestants —25% were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritual_but_not_religious) (Spiritual but not religious) believers without affiliation to any specific religion , 13% were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism) (Atheism) atheists , 6.5% were Muslims,[ l]    1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith) (Slavic Native Faith) Rodnovery , other Paganisms, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia) (Shamanism in Siberia) Siberian shamanism and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengrism) (Tengrism) Tengrism ), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism) (Judaism) religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.[ 562]      Education  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Russia) (Education in Russia) Education in Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:МГУ,_вид_с_воздуха.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University) (Moscow State University) Moscow State University , the most prestigious educational institution in Russia[ 574]      Russia has a near-universal adult (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literate) (Literate) literacy rate ,[ 575]    and has (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_education) (Compulsory education) compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.[ 576]    It grants (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_education) (Free education) free education to its citizens by constitution.[ 577]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Russia)) (Ministry of Education (Russia)) Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education, while the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Science_and_Higher_Education_(Russia)) (Ministry of Science and Higher Education (Russia)) Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.[ 576]    Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. As of 2021 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2021)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , over 41% of the Russian population has a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor's_degree) (Bachelor's degree) bachelor's degree or an equivalent—which is among the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_tertiary_education_attainment) (List of countries by tertiary education attainment) highest percentages of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_education) (Tertiary education) tertiary-level graduates in the world.[ 578]     Russia's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-school) (Pre-school) pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,[ 579]    some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.[ 576]    An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.[ 580]     Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:[ 581]    first-degree courses usually take five years.[ 580]    The oldest and largest (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutions_of_higher_education_in_Russia) (List of institutions of higher education in Russia) universities in Russia are (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University) (Moscow State University) Moscow State University and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_State_University) (Saint Petersburg State University) Saint Petersburg State University .[ 582]    There are ten (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Federal_universities_of_Russia) (Template:Federal universities of Russia) federal universities across the country.  Health  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_in_Russia) (Health in Russia) Health in Russia  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Further information: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_in_Russia) (Healthcare in Russia) Healthcare in Russia  Russia constitutionally guarantees free, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_health_care) (Universal health care) universal health care for all Russian citizens through the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_insurance_mandate) (Health insurance mandate) mandatory medical insurance (OMS) funded by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Compulsory_Medical_Insurance_Fund_(Russia)) (Federal Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund (Russia)) Federal Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund (FFOMS) created in 1993.[ 583]    [ 584]    [ 585]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_(Russia)) (Ministry of Health (Russia)) Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees national (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care) (Health care) healthcare . Its healthcare system has decentralized since the 1990s, with federal entities having local healthcare departments, shifting from the centralized and hierarchical Soviet system.[ 584]    Private healthcare has also seen development, created out of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicly_funded_health_care) (Publicly funded health care) public healthcare fund .[ 586]    [ 585]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Metallurg_Sochi.jpg)   Metallurg, a Soviet-era (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanatorium) (Sanatorium) sanatorium in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sochi) (Sochi) Sochi [ 587]      Russia spent 7.39% of its GDP on healthcare in 2021.[ 588]    Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.[ 589]    As of 2023 (https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russia&action=edit) [ update]    (./Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2023)  (./Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements)  , the overall (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_life_expectancy) (List of countries by life expectancy) life expectancy in Russia at birth is 73 years,[ 590]    an increase of roughly 8 years from 2005.[ 591]    Russia has among the highest gender gaps in life expectancy—78 for females and 68 for males—a gap of 10 years.[ 592]    [ 593]    [ 594]    It has one of the most female-biased (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sex_ratio) (Human sex ratio) sex ratios in the world, with 0.859 males to every female,[ 250]    due to its high male (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_rate) (Mortality rate) mortality rate .[ 592]    [ 595]    [ 585]    Russia's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infant_mortality) (Infant mortality) infant mortality rate is very low (4 per 1,000 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_birth_(human)) (Live birth (human)) live births ).[ 596]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease) (Cardiovascular disease) Cardiovascular diseases account for more than half of the yearly mortalities in Russia,[ 597]    which is one of the highest percentages in the world.[ 598]    Its (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_in_Russia) (Alcohol in Russia) alcohol consumption rate was historically seen as the biggest health issue,[ 599]    but has seen (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_alcohol_consumption_per_capita) (List of countries by alcohol consumption per capita) a stark decrease since 2008 due to restrictive government measures.[ 600]    [ 601]    [ 602]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity) (Obesity) Obesity is a prevalent health issue, with most adults being overweight or obese,[ 603]    alongside (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoking_in_Russia) (Smoking in Russia) smoking —Russia's tobacco consumption rate is among the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prevalence_of_tobacco_use) (Prevalence of tobacco use) highest in the world .[ 604]    The country's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_suicide_rate) (List of countries by suicide rate) high suicide rate also remains a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide_in_Russia) (Suicide in Russia) significant social issue .[ 605]    [ 595]       Culture  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Russia) (Culture of Russia) Culture of Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moscow-Bolshoi-Theare-1.jpg) (classical building at night)   The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshoi_Theatre) (Bolshoi Theatre) Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow  Russian culture reflects a long, gradual, and complex amalgamation of various elements that coincided with centuries of development, expansion, and interaction with different peoples, artistic movements, and cultures.[ 606]    Russia has heavily influenced (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music) (Classical music) classical music ,[ 607]    [ 608]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_ballet) (Russian ballet) ballet ,[ 609]    [ 610]    theatre,[ 611]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_mathematicians) (List of Russian mathematicians) mathematics ,[ 496]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_Russia) (Sport in Russia) sport ,[ 612]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_artists) (List of Russian artists) painting ,[ 613]    [ 614]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_Russia) (Cinema of Russia) cinema .[ 615]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_literature) (Russian literature) Russian writers and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_philosophy) (Russian philosophy) philosophers have played an important role in the development of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_literature) (Western literature) European literature [ 616]    [ 617]    and thought.[ 618]    Russia also made pioneering (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_inventions_and_technology_records) (Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records) contributions to science, technology , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_exploration) (Space exploration) space exploration .[ 619]    [ 620]     Russia is home to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Russia) (List of World Heritage Sites in Russia) 32 UNESCO (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sites) (World Heritage Sites) World Heritage Sites , 21 of which are cultural, while 31 lie on the tentative list.[ 621]    The large global (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_diaspora) (Russian diaspora) Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-headed_eagle) (Double-headed eagle) double-headed eagle , dates back to the Tsardom period and is featured in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Russia) (Coat of arms of Russia) its coat of arms and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_heraldry) (Russian heraldry) heraldry .[ 55]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Bear) (Russian Bear) Russian Bear and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personification_of_Russia) (Personification of Russia) Mother Russia are often used as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_personification) (National personification) national personifications of the country.[ 622]    [ 623]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matryoshka_dolls) (Matryoshka dolls) Matryoshka dolls are a cultural icon of Russia.[ 624]     Holidays  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Russia) (Public holidays in Russia) Public holidays in Russia  Russia has eight official holidays spanning public, patriotic, and religious commemorations.[ 625]    The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_in_Russia) (Christmas in Russia) Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.[ 626]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defender_of_the_Fatherland_Day) (Defender of the Fatherland Day) Defender of the Fatherland Day , dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.[ 627]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Women's_Day) (International Women's Day) International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that the flower vendors of Moscow often see profits "fifteen times" more compared to other holidays.[ 628]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_Day#Russia) (May Day) Spring and Labour Day , originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.[ 629]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Алые_паруса.jpg)   The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlet_Sails_(tradition)) (Scarlet Sails (tradition)) Scarlet Sails being celebrated along the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neva) (Neva) Neva in Saint Petersburg  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory_Day_(Russia)) (Victory Day (Russia)) Victory Day , which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe) (End of World War II in Europe) End of World War II in Europe , is celebrated on 9 May as an annual (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Victory_Day_Parade) (Moscow Victory Day Parade) large parade in Moscow's Red Square[ 630]    and marks the famous (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortal_Regiment) (Immortal Regiment) Immortal Regiment civil event.[ 631]    Other patriotic holidays include (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_Day) (Russia Day) Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Declaration_of_State_Sovereignty_of_the_Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic) (Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union,[ 632]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_Day_(Russia)) (Unity Day (Russia)) Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Moscow_(1612)) (Battle of Moscow (1612)) 1612 uprising that marked the end of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish–Russian_War_(1609–1618)) (Polish–Russian War (1609–1618)) Polish occupation of Moscow .[ 633]     There are many popular non-public holidays. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_New_Year) (Old New Year) Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.[ 634]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslenitsa) (Maslenitsa) Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.[ 635]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonautics_Day) (Cosmonautics Day) Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.[ 636]    Two major Christian holidays are (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter) (Easter) Easter and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_Sunday) (Trinity Sunday) Trinity Sunday .[ 637]      Art and architecture  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_artists) (Russian artists) Russian artists , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Russia) (Architecture of Russia) Architecture of Russia , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_architects) (List of Russian architects) List of Russian architects  Early Russian painting is (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_icons) (Russian icons) represented in icons and vibrant (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresco) (Fresco) frescos . In the early 15th century, master icon painter (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Rublev) (Andrei Rublev) Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.[ 613]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Academy_of_Arts) (Russian Academy of Arts) Russian Academy of Arts , which was established in 1757 to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.[ 55]    In the 18th century, academicians (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Argunov) (Ivan Argunov) Ivan Argunov , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Levitzky) (Dmitry Levitzky) Dmitry Levitzky , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Borovikovsky) (Vladimir Borovikovsky) Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential.[ 638]    The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Briullov) (Karl Briullov) Karl Briullov and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Andreyevich_Ivanov) (Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov) Alexander Ivanov , both of whom were known for (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism) (Romanticism) Romantic historical canvases.[ 639]    [ 640]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Aivazovsky) (Ivan Aivazovsky) Ivan Aivazovsky , another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_art) (Marine art) marine art .[ 641]     (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1349637415/mw-parser-output/.tmulti)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Bryullov) (Karl Bryullov) Karl Bryullov , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii) (The Last Day of Pompeii) The Last Day of Pompeii  (1833)    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Winter_Palace_Panorama_3.jpg)     The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_Palace) (Winter Palace) Winter Palace served as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_residence) (Official residence) official residence of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_all_the_Russias) (Emperor of all the Russias) Emperor of Russia  .     (./Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images)   In the 1860s, a group of critical (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realism_(arts)) (Realism (arts)) realists ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peredvizhniki) (Peredvizhniki) Peredvizhniki ), led by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Kramskoy) (Ivan Kramskoy) Ivan Kramskoy , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilya_Repin) (Ilya Repin) Ilya Repin and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasiliy_Perov) (Vasiliy Perov) Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.[ 642]    [ 643]    The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolism_(arts)) (Symbolism (arts)) symbolism , represented by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Vrubel) (Mikhail Vrubel) Mikhail Vrubel and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Roerich) (Nicholas Roerich) Nicholas Roerich .[ 644]    [ 645]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_avant-garde) (Russian avant-garde) Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; globally influential artists from this era were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Lissitzky) (El Lissitzky) El Lissitzky ,[ 646]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimir_Malevich) (Kazimir Malevich) Kazimir Malevich , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natalia_Goncharova) (Natalia Goncharova) Natalia Goncharova , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wassily_Kandinsky) (Wassily Kandinsky) Wassily Kandinsky , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc_Chagall) (Marc Chagall) Marc Chagall .[ 647]     The history of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Russia) (Architecture of Russia) Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture_of_Kievan_Rus') (Architecture of Kievan Rus') church architecture of Kievan Rus' .[ 613]    [ 648]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus') (Christianization of Kievan Rus') Christianization of Kievan Rus' brought centuries (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_architecture#Legacy) (Byzantine architecture) Byzantine architecture .[ 613]    [ 649]    Following Mongol occupation, Kievan Rus' cut its ties with the Byzantine Empire, and Russian architecture saw native innovations, such as the invention of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconostasis) (Iconostasis) iconostasis .[ 613]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle_Fioravanti) (Aristotle Fioravanti) Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance) (Renaissance) Renaissance trends to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Moscow) (Grand Principality of Moscow) Grand Principality of Moscow , which influenced the reconstruction of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin) (Moscow Kremlin) Moscow Kremlin .[ 613]    [ 650]    The 16th century saw the development of the unique (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tent-like_church) (Tent-like church) tent-like churches and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onion_dome) (Onion dome) onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.[ 651]    In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaroslavl) (Yaroslavl) Yaroslavl , gradually paving the way for the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naryshkin_baroque) (Naryshkin baroque) Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.[ 652]     After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles.[ 613]    The 18th-century taste for (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rococo) (Rococo) Rococo architecture led to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_Baroque) (Elizabethan Baroque) works of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo_Rastrelli) (Bartolomeo Rastrelli) Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasily_Bazhenov) (Vasily Bazhenov) Vasily Bazhenov , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matvey_Kazakov) (Matvey Kazakov) Matvey Kazakov , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Starov) (Ivan Starov) Ivan Starov , created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.[ 613]    During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoclassical_architecture) (Neoclassical architecture) Neoclassical architecture .[ 653]    Under Alexander I, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_style) (Empire style) Empire style became the de facto architectural style.[ 654]    The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Byzantine_architecture_in_the_Russian_Empire) (Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire) Neo-Byzantine and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Revival) (Russian Revival) Russian Revival style.[ 613]    [ 655]    In the early 20th century, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_neoclassical_revival) (Russian neoclassical revival) Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.[ 656]    Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_Nouveau_architecture_in_Russia) (Art Nouveau architecture in Russia) Art Nouveau ,[ 657]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(art)) (Constructivism (art)) Constructivism ,[ 658]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalinist_architecture) (Stalinist architecture) Socialist Classicism .[ 659]      Music  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Russia) (Music of Russia) Music of Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tchaikovsky_by_Reutlinger_(cropped).jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky) (Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky) Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893), (circa) c.  1888   Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.[ 607]    In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Glinka) (Mikhail Glinka) Mikhail Glinka along with other members of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mighty_Handful) (The Mighty Handful) The Mighty Handful , who were later succeeded by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belyayev_circle) (Belyayev circle) Belyayev circle ,[ 660]    and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Musical_Society) (Russian Musical Society) Russian Musical Society led by composers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Rubinstein) (Anton Rubinstein) Anton and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Rubinstein) (Nikolay Rubinstein) Nikolay Rubinstein .[ 661]    The later tradition of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyotr_Ilyich_Tchaikovsky) (Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky) Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky , one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Rachmaninoff) (Sergei Rachmaninoff) Sergei Rachmaninoff . World-renowned composers of the 20th century include (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Scriabin) (Alexander Scriabin) Alexander Scriabin , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Glazunov) (Alexander Glazunov) Alexander Glazunov ,[ 607]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky) (Igor Stravinsky) Igor Stravinsky , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Prokofiev) (Sergei Prokofiev) Sergei Prokofiev and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitri_Shostakovich) (Dmitri Shostakovich) Dmitri Shostakovich , and later (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edison_Denisov) (Edison Denisov) Edison Denisov , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofia_Gubaidulina) (Sofia Gubaidulina) Sofia Gubaidulina ,[ 662]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgy_Sviridov) (Georgy Sviridov) Georgy Sviridov ,[ 663]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Schnittke) (Alfred Schnittke) Alfred Schnittke .[ 662]     During the Soviet era, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music) (Popular music) popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bard_(Soviet_Union)) (Bard (Soviet Union)) balladeers —(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Vysotsky) (Vladimir Vysotsky) Vladimir Vysotsky and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulat_Okudzhava) (Bulat Okudzhava) Bulat Okudzhava ,[ 662]    and performers such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alla_Pugacheva) (Alla Pugacheva) Alla Pugacheva .[ 664]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jazz) (Jazz) Jazz , even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.[ 662]    By the 1980s, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music_in_Russia) (Rock music in Russia) rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aria_(band)) (Aria (band)) Aria , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarium_(band)) (Aquarium (band)) Aquarium ,[ 665]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDT_(band)) (DDT (band)) DDT ,[ 666]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kino_(band)) (Kino (band)) Kino ;[ 667]    the latter's leader (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viktor_Tsoi) (Viktor Tsoi) Viktor Tsoi , was in particular, a gigantic figure.[ 668]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_pop) (Russian pop) Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.A.T.u.) (T.A.T.u.) t.A.T.u. [ 669]      Literature and philosophy  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_literature) (Russian literature) Russian literature and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_philosophy) (Russian philosophy) Russian philosophy  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Novgorod_Codex_-_colour.jpg)   First page of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novgorod_Codex) (Novgorod Codex) Novgorod Codex , (circa) c.  1000 , the oldest surviving book of Kievan Rus'  Russian literature is among the world's most influential and developed.[ 616]    [ 617]    It can be traced to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages) (Early Middle Ages) Early Middle Ages , when (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic) (Old Church Slavonic) Old Church Slavonic was introduced as a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liturgical_language) (Liturgical language) liturgical language and came to be used as a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_language) (Literary language) literary language , creating a situation of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diglossia) (Diglossia) diglossia .[ 670]    [ 671]    (Page / location: 4) :  4   The Russian vernacular remained in use for (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oral_literature) (Oral literature) oral literature and chancery writing; it gradually supplanted (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_Slavonic) (Church Slavonic) Church Slavonic in secular works, contributing to the standardisation of the modern Russian literary language in the 18th and early 19th centuries.[ 671]    (Page / location: 5) :  5    By the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment) (Age of Enlightenment) Age of Enlightenment , literature had grown in importance, with works from (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov) (Mikhail Lomonosov) Mikhail Lomonosov , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Fonvizin) (Denis Fonvizin) Denis Fonvizin , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavrila_Derzhavin) (Gavrila Derzhavin) Gavrila Derzhavin , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Karamzin) (Nikolay Karamzin) Nikolay Karamzin .[ 616]    From the early 1830s, during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Russian_Poetry) (Golden Age of Russian Poetry) Golden Age of Russian Poetry , literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.[ 672]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romantic_literature) (Romantic literature) Romantic literature permitted a flowering of poetic talent: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasily_Zhukovsky) (Vasily Zhukovsky) Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Pushkin) (Alexander Pushkin) Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.[ 673]    Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Lermontov) (Mikhail Lermontov) Mikhail Lermontov , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Nekrasov) (Nikolay Nekrasov) Nikolay Nekrasov , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksey_Konstantinovich_Tolstoy) (Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy) Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Tyutchev) (Fyodor Tyutchev) Fyodor Tyutchev , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afanasy_Fet) (Afanasy Fet) Afanasy Fet .[ 616]     The first great Russian novelist was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Gogol) (Nikolai Gogol) Nikolai Gogol .[ 616]    [ 674]    Then, during the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_realism) (Literary realism) Age of Realism ,[ 616]    came (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Turgenev) (Ivan Turgenev) Ivan Turgenev , who mastered both short stories and novels.[ 675]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoyevsky) (Fyodor Dostoyevsky) Fyodor Dostoevsky and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy) (Leo Tolstoy) Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned.[ 616]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Saltykov-Shchedrin) (Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin) Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satire) (Satire) satire ,[ 616]    [ 676]    while (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Leskov) (Nikolai Leskov) Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.[ 677]    In the second half of the century (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov) (Anton Chekhov) Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.[ 616]    [ 678]    Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Krylov) (Ivan Krylov) Ivan Krylov ,[ 679]    non-fiction writers such as the critic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vissarion_Belinsky) (Vissarion Belinsky) Vissarion Belinsky ,[ 616]    [ 680]    and playwrights such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Griboyedov) (Aleksandr Griboyedov) Aleksandr Griboyedov and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Ostrovsky) (Aleksandr Ostrovsky) Aleksandr Ostrovsky .[ 681]    [ 682]    The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Age_of_Russian_Poetry) (Silver Age of Russian Poetry) Silver Age of Russian Poetry .[ 616]    This era had poets such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Blok) (Alexander Blok) Alexander Blok , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Akhmatova) (Anna Akhmatova) Anna Akhmatova , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Pasternak) (Boris Pasternak) Boris Pasternak , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Mayakovsky) (Vladimir Mayakovsky) Vladimir Mayakovsky ,[ 683]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Yesenin) (Sergei Yesenin) Sergei Yesenin ,[ 684]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantin_Balmont) (Konstantin Balmont) Konstantin Balmont .[ 685]    It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Kuprin) (Aleksandr Kuprin) Aleksandr Kuprin , Nobel Prize winner (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Bunin) (Ivan Bunin) Ivan Bunin , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid_Andreyev) (Leonid Andreyev) Leonid Andreyev , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yevgeny_Zamyatin) (Yevgeny Zamyatin) Yevgeny Zamyatin , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dmitry_Merezhkovsky) (Dmitry Merezhkovsky) Dmitry Merezhkovsky , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Bely) (Andrei Bely) Andrei Bely .[ 616]     After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_émigré) (White émigré) white émigré parts. In the 1930s, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_realism) (Socialist realism) socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia.[ 616]    Its leading figure was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxim_Gorky) (Maxim Gorky) Maxim Gorky , who laid the foundations of this style.[ 686]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Bulgakov) (Mikhail Bulgakov) Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.[ 687]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Ostrovsky) (Nikolay Ostrovsky) Nikolay Ostrovsky 's novel (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_the_Steel_Was_Tempered) (How the Steel Was Tempered) How the Steel Was Tempered  has been among the most successful works of Russian literature.[ 616]    Influential émigré writers include (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Nabokov) (Vladimir Nabokov) Vladimir Nabokov ,[ 688]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Brodsky) (Joseph Brodsky) Joseph Brodsky ,[ 689]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Asimov) (Isaac Asimov) Isaac Asimov , who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.[ 690]    Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn) (Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn) Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn , who wrote about life in the Gulag camps,[ 691]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrey_Sinyavsky) (Andrey Sinyavsky) Andrey Sinyavsky .[ 689]     (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1349637415/mw-parser-output/.tmulti)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ilya_Efimovich_Repin_(1844-1930)_-_Portrait_of_Leo_Tolstoy_(1887).jpg)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy) (Leo Tolstoy) Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) is widely regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace) (War and Peace) War and Peace  .[ 692]       (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vasily_Perov_-_Портрет_Ф.М.Достоевского_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyodor_Dostoevsky) (Fyodor Dostoevsky) Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), widely considered one of the greatest novelists of all time, whose works include (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_and_Punishment) (Crime and Punishment) Crime and Punishment  [ 693]          (./Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images)   Russian literature faced rapid and difficult changes during the turbulent 1990s, with writers and publishers struggling to adjust to new economic and political developments.[ 694]    [ 671]    (Page / location: 65) :  65   Domestic literature subsequently declined in influence among most Russians,[ 695]    who now had sudden and rapid access to a wide volume of previously suppressed Western literary movements.[ 696]    Nevertheless, this environment fostered experimental and postmodern literature and satire.[ 696]    At the beginning of the 21st century, the most discussed figures, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_postmodernism) (Russian postmodernism) postmodernists (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Pelevin) (Victor Pelevin) Victor Pelevin and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Sorokin) (Vladimir Sorokin) Vladimir Sorokin , remained the leading Russian writers.[ 697]    [ 671]    (Page / location: 65–67) :  65–67    Russian philosophy has been influential. Religious and spiritual philosophy is represented by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Solovyov_(philosopher)) (Vladimir Solovyov (philosopher)) Vladimir Solovyov , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Berdyaev) (Nikolai Berdyaev) Nikolai Berdyaev , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavel_Florensky) (Pavel Florensky) Pavel Florensky , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semyon_Frank) (Semyon Frank) Semyon Frank , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Lossky) (Nikolay Lossky) Nikolay Lossky , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasily_Rozanov) (Vasily Rozanov) Vasily Rozanov , and others.[ 698]    Mystic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helena_Blavatsky) (Helena Blavatsky) Helena Blavatsky gained an international following as the leading theoretician of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophy) (Theosophy) Theosophy and the co-founder of the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theosophical_Society) (Theosophical Society) Theosophical Society .[ 699]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Herzen) (Alexander Herzen) Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrarianism) (Agrarianism) agrarian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populism) (Populism) populism .[ 700]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin) (Mikhail Bakunin) Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchism) (Anarchism) anarchism .[ 701]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin) (Peter Kropotkin) Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-communism) (Anarcho-communism) anarcho-communism .[ 702]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin) (Mikhail Bakhtin) Mikhail Bakhtin 's writings have significantly inspired scholars in various fields.[ 703]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin) (Vladimir Lenin) Vladimir Lenin , a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leninism) (Leninism) Leninism .[ 704]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leon_Trotsky) (Leon Trotsky) Leon Trotsky , Lenin's contemporary and co-revolutionary, founded his own strain of Marxism known as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotskyism) (Trotskyism) Trotskyism .[ 705]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Zinoviev) (Alexander Zinoviev) Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher and writer in the second half of the 20th century.[ 706]      Mass media and cinema  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_of_Russia) (Media of Russia) Media of Russia and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_Russia) (Cinema of Russia) Cinema of Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Останкинская_башня_вечером.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostankino_Tower) (Ostankino Tower) Ostankino Tower in Moscow, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_freestanding_structures) (List of tallest freestanding structures) tallest freestanding structure in Europe[ 707]      There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TASS) (TASS) TASS , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIA_Novosti) (RIA Novosti) RIA Novosti , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputnik_(news_agency)) (Sputnik (news agency)) Sputnik , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interfax) (Interfax) Interfax .[ 708]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_in_Russia) (Television in Russia) Television is the most popular medium in Russia.[ 709]    Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Rossii) (Radio Rossii) Radio Rossii , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesti_FM) (Vesti FM) Vesti FM , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_of_Moscow) (Echo of Moscow) Echo of Moscow , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Mayak) (Radio Mayak) Radio Mayak , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russkoye_Radio) (Russkoye Radio) Russkoye Radio . Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, (Russian-language text) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumenty_i_Fakty) (Argumenty i Fakty) Argumenty i Fakty   (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  , (Russian-language text) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komsomolskaya_Pravda) (Komsomolskaya Pravda) Komsomolskaya Pravda   (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  , (Russian-language text) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossiyskaya_Gazeta) (Rossiyskaya Gazeta) Rossiyskaya Gazeta   (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izvestia) (Izvestia) Izvestia  , and (Russian-language text) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moskovskij_Komsomolets) (Moskovskij Komsomolets) Moskovskij Komsomolets   (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  are popular. State-run (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_One_Russia) (Channel One Russia) Channel One and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia-1) (Russia-1) Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RT_(TV_network)) (RT (TV network)) RT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.[ 709]     Russian and later (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_cinema) (Soviet cinema) Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battleship_Potemkin) (Battleship Potemkin) Battleship Potemkin  , which was named the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_films_considered_the_best) (List of films considered the best) greatest film of all time at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo_58) (Expo 58) Brussels World's Fair in 1958.[ 710]    [ 711]    Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Eisenstein) (Sergei Eisenstein) Sergei Eisenstein and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrei_Tarkovsky) (Andrei Tarkovsky) Andrei Tarkovsky , would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.[ 712]    [ 713]    Eisenstein was a student of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Kuleshov) (Lev Kuleshov) Lev Kuleshov , who developed the groundbreaking (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_montage_theory) (Soviet montage theory) Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerasimov_Institute_of_Cinematography) (Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography) All-Union Institute of Cinematography .[ 714]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dziga_Vertov) (Dziga Vertov) Dziga Vertov 's "(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kino-Eye) (Kino-Eye) Kino-Eye " theory had a large effect on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.[ 715]    Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapaev_(film)) (Chapaev (film)) Chapaev  , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cranes_Are_Flying) (The Cranes Are Flying) The Cranes Are Flying  , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballad_of_a_Soldier) (Ballad of a Soldier) Ballad of a Soldier  .[ 615]     The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.[ 615]    The comedies of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eldar_Ryazanov) (Eldar Ryazanov) Eldar Ryazanov and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonid_Gaidai) (Leonid Gaidai) Leonid Gaidai were immensely popular, with many of their catchphrases still in use today.[ 716]    [ 717]    In 1961–68 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey_Bondarchuk) (Sergey Bondarchuk) Sergey Bondarchuk directed an (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award) (Academy Award) Oscar -winning (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace_(film_series)) (War and Peace (film series)) film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Peace) (War and Peace) War and Peace  , which was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_most_expensive_film) (The most expensive film) the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.[ 615]    In 1969, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Motyl) (Vladimir Motyl) Vladimir Motyl 's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sun_of_the_Desert) (White Sun of the Desert) White Sun of the Desert  was released, a very popular film in a genre of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostern) (Ostern) ostern ; the film is traditionally watched by (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmonauts) (Cosmonauts) cosmonauts before any trip into space.[ 718]    After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses; however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.[ 719]    (./Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references)  (./Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_February_2026)  [ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS) (Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS) (This claim needs references to more current sources. (February 2026)) obsolete source   ]    Cuisine  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_cuisine) (Russian cuisine) Russian cuisine  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mint_bread_kvas.jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvass) (Kvass) Kvass is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.  Russian cuisine has been formed by the country's diverse climate, cultural and religious traditions, and vast geography; it shares similarities with neighbouring countries. Crops of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rye) (Rye) rye , wheat, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley) (Barley) barley , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet) (Millet) millet provide the ingredients for various breads, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancake) (Pancake) pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread_in_Europe#Finland_and_Russia) (Bread in Europe) Bread , of many varieties,[ 720]    is very popular across Russia.[ 721]    Flavourful soups and stews include (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shchi) (Shchi) shchi , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borsch) (Borsch) borsch , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukha) (Ukha) ukha , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solyanka) (Solyanka) solyanka , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okroshka) (Okroshka) okroshka . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smetana_(dairy_product)) (Smetana (dairy product)) Smetana (a heavy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sour_cream) (Sour cream) sour cream ) and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayonnaise) (Mayonnaise) mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.[ 722]    [ 723]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirozhki) (Pirozhki) Pirozhki ,[ 724]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blini) (Blini) blini ,[ 725]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrniki) (Syrniki) syrniki are native types of pancakes.[ 726]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beef_Stroganoff) (Beef Stroganoff) Beef Stroganoff ,[ 727]    (Page / location: 266) :  266   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_Kiev) (Chicken Kiev) Chicken Kiev ,[ 727]    (Page / location: 320) :  320   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelmeni) (Pelmeni) pelmeni ,[ 728]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shashlyk) (Shashlyk) shashlyk are popular meat dishes.[ 729]    Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golubtsy) (Golubtsy) golubtsy ) usually filled with meat.[ 730]    Salads include (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivier_salad) (Olivier salad) Olivier salad ,[ 731]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinegret) (Vinegret) vinegret ,[ 732]    and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dressed_herring) (Dressed herring) dressed herring .[ 733]     Russia's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_national_drinks) (List of national drinks) national non-alcoholic drink is (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvass) (Kvass) kvass ,[ 734]    and the national alcoholic drink is (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodka) (Vodka) vodka ; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century.[ 735]    The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,[ 736]    while (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer_in_Russia) (Beer in Russia) beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.[ 737]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_wine) (Russian wine) Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.[ 738]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_tea_culture) (Russian tea culture) Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.[ 739]      Sports  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main article: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_Russia) (Sport in Russia) Sport in Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CSKA_Arena_(Quintin_Soloviev).jpg)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontinental_Hockey_League) (Kontinental Hockey League) KHL match between (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSKA_Moscow) (CSKA Moscow) CSKA Moscow and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HC_Dynamo_Moscow) (HC Dynamo Moscow) Dynamo Moscow at (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSKA_Arena) (CSKA Arena) CSKA Arena , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow) (Moscow) Moscow   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football) (Association football) Football is the most popular sport in Russia.[ 740]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_national_football_team) (Soviet Union national football team) Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_1960) (Euro 1960) Euro 1960 ,[ 741]    and reached the finals of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_1988) (Euro 1988) Euro 1988 .[ 742]    Russian clubs (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PFC_CSKA_Moscow) (PFC CSKA Moscow) CSKA Moscow and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenit_Saint_Petersburg) (Zenit Saint Petersburg) Zenit Saint Petersburg won the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Cup) (UEFA Cup) UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.[ 743]    [ 744]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_national_football_team) (Russian national football team) Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_2008) (Euro 2008) Euro 2008 .[ 745]    Russia was the host nation for the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_FIFA_Confederations_Cup) (2017 FIFA Confederations Cup) 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup ,[ 746]    and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_FIFA_World_Cup) (2018 FIFA World Cup) 2018 FIFA World Cup .[ 747]    However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.[ 748]     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey_in_Russia) (Ice hockey in Russia) Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union_men's_national_ice_hockey_team) (Soviet Union men's national ice hockey team) Soviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.[ 612]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandy) (Bandy) Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.[ 749]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_national_basketball_team) (Russian national basketball team) Russian national basketball team won (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EuroBasket_2007) (EuroBasket 2007) EuroBasket 2007 ,[ 750]    and the Russian basketball club (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBC_CSKA_Moscow) (PBC CSKA Moscow) PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams.[ 751]    The annual Formula One (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Grand_Prix) (Russian Grand Prix) Russian Grand Prix was held at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sochi_Autodrom) (Sochi Autodrom) Sochi Autodrom in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sochi_Olympic_Park) (Sochi Olympic Park) Sochi Olympic Park , until its termination following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine) (2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine) 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine .[ 752]    [ 753]     Historically, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_at_the_Olympics) (Russia at the Olympics) Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_Games) (Olympic Games) Olympic Games .[ 612]    Russia is the leading nation in (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhythmic_gymnastics) (Rhythmic gymnastics) rhythmic gymnastics , and Russian (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronised_swimming) (Synchronised swimming) synchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best.[ 754]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_skating) (Figure skating) Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pair_skating) (Pair skating) pair skating and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_dancing) (Ice dancing) ice dancing .[ 755]    Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.[ 756]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess) (Chess) Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.[ 757]    The (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_Summer_Olympic_Games) (1980 Summer Olympic Games) 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,[ 758]    and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Winter_Olympics) (2014 Winter Olympics) 2014 Winter Olympics and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Winter_Paralympics) (2014 Winter Paralympics) 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.[ 759]    [ 760]    However, Russia has also had 43 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic_medal) (Olympic medal) Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_in_Russia) (Doping in Russia) doping violations , which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.[ 761]       See also  (flag)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Russia) (Portal:Russia) Russia portal   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:P_countries-vector.svg) (icon)     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Countries) (Portal:Countries) Countries portal    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Russia) (Outline of Russia) Outline of Russia     Notes   ↑   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea) (Crimea) Crimea , which was (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation) (Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation) annexed by Russia in 2014, remains (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_68/262) (United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262) internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine.[ 1]    Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts) (Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts) annexed —though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_ES-11/4) (United Nations General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4) internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuril_Islands) (Kuril Islands) Kuril Islands have been the subject of a (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuril_Islands_dispute) (Kuril Islands dispute) territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.[ 2]      ↑   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language) (Russian language) Russian : Россия , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian) (Romanization of Russian) romanised :  (Russian-language romanisation) Rossiya  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian) (Help:IPA/Russian) [ rɐˈsʲijə]   (./Category:Pages_with_Russian_IPA)    ↑   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language) (Russian language) Russian : Российская Федерация , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian) (Romanization of Russian) romanised :  (Russian-language romanisation) Rossiyskaya Federatsiya  (./Category:Articles_containing_Russian-language_text)  , IPA: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian) (Help:IPA/Russian) [ rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə]   (./Category:Pages_with_Russian_IPA)    ↑   The names 'Russia' and 'Russian Federation' are declared by the constitution to be co-equal.[ 13]      ↑   The fourteen countries bordering Russia are[ 14]    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway) (Norway) Norway and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland) (Finland) Finland to the northwest; (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia) (Estonia) Estonia , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia) (Latvia) Latvia , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus) (Belarus) Belarus and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine) (Ukraine) Ukraine to the west, as well as (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania) (Lithuania) Lithuania and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland) (Poland) Poland (with (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaliningrad_Oblast) (Kaliningrad Oblast) Kaliningrad Oblast ); (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)) (Georgia (country)) Georgia and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan) (Azerbaijan) Azerbaijan to the southwest; (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan) (Kazakhstan) Kazakhstan and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia) (Mongolia) Mongolia to the south; (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China) (China) China and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea) (North Korea) North Korea to the southeast. Russia also shares (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_boundary) (Maritime boundary) maritime boundaries with Japan and the United States, as well as borders with the two (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_recognized_states) (Partially recognized states) partially recognised breakaway states of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ossetia) (South Ossetia) South Ossetia and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhazia) (Abkhazia) Abkhazia that it occupies in Georgia.  ↑   Most notably the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budyonnovsk_hospital_hostage_crisis) (Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis) Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_apartment_bombings) (Russian apartment bombings) Russian apartment bombings , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_theater_hostage_crisis) (Moscow theater hostage crisis) Moscow theatre hostage crisis , and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beslan_school_siege) (Beslan school siege) Beslan school siege   ↑   Russia has an additional 850 km (530 mi) of coastline along the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspian_Sea) (Caspian Sea) Caspian Sea , which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.[ 246]      ↑   Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia_(continent)) (Australia (continent)) Australia , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica) (Antarctica) Antarctica , and Europe, although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.  ↑   Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea) (Black Sea) Black Sea and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Azov) (Sea of Azov) Sea of Azov , to its west: the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Sea) (Baltic Sea) Baltic Sea , to its north: the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barents_Sea) (Barents Sea) Barents Sea ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sea) (White Sea) White Sea , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pechora_Sea) (Pechora Sea) Pechora Sea ), the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kara_Sea) (Kara Sea) Kara Sea , the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptev_Sea) (Laptev Sea) Laptev Sea , and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Siberian_Sea) (East Siberian Sea) East Siberian Sea , to its northeast: the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chukchi_Sea) (Chukchi Sea) Chukchi Sea and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_Sea) (Bering Sea) Bering Sea , and to its southeast: the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Okhotsk) (Sea of Okhotsk) Sea of Okhotsk and the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Japan) (Sea of Japan) Sea of Japan .  ↑   In 2020, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_Russia) (2020 amendments to the Constitution of Russia) constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.[ 279]      ↑   Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Crimea_(Russia)) (Republic of Crimea (Russia)) Republic of Crimea and the federal city of (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevastopol) (Sevastopol) Sevastopol since the annexation of Crimea in 2014,[ 1]    and territories set up following the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_annexation_of_Donetsk,_Kherson,_Luhansk_and_Zaporizhzhia_oblasts) (Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts) Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts in 2022.  ↑   The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechnya) (Chechnya) Chechnya and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingushetia) (Ingushetia) Ingushetia , which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.[ 562]          References  Citations  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1327269900)   1  2   Pifer, Steven (17 March 2020). (https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/17/crimea-six-years-after-illegal-annexation/) "Crimea: Six years after illegal annexation" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brookings_Institution) (Brookings Institution) Brookings Institution . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220414045104/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/17/crimea-six-years-after-illegal-annexation/) Archived from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Crimea%3A+Six+years+after+illegal+annexation&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution&rft.date=2020-03-17&rft.aulast=Pifer&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brookings.edu%2Fblog%2Forder-from-chaos%2F2020%2F03%2F17%2Fcrimea-six-years-after-illegal-annexation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Chapple, Amos (4 January 2019). (https://www.rferl.org/a/the-disputed-islands-where-world-war-2-never-ended/28402307.html) "The Kurile Islands: Why Russia And Japan Never Made Peace After World War II" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty) (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty) Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173647/https://www.rferl.org/a/the-disputed-islands-where-world-war-2-never-ended/28402307.html) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2022 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Language+Journal&rft.atitle=Russian+as+the+National+Language%3A+An+Overview+of+Language+Planning+in+the+Russian+Federation&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=25-36&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.70163%2F0036-0252.1233&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43669126%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Chevalier&rft.aufirst=Joan+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx) Национальный состав населения  (in Russian). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_State_Statistics_Service_(Russia)) (Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)) Federal State Statistics Service . (https://web.archive.org/web/20221230204643/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx) Archived from the original on 30 December 2022. Retrieved 30 December 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.pub=Federal+State+Statistics+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frosstat.gov.ru%2Fstorage%2Fmediabank%2FTom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru))  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.vedomosti.ru/society/articles/2026/05/14/1197125-za-15-let-dolya-pravoslavnih-rossiyan-snizilas) "За 15 лет доля православных россиян снизилась в 1,2 раза" (in Russian). Vedomosti. 14 May 2026. Retrieved 25 August 2026 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+State+Statistics+Service&rft.atitle=The+Russian+federation%3A+general+characteristics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gks.ru%2Fscripts%2Ffree%2F1c.exe%3FXXXX09F.2.1%2F010000R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   Including 2,459,276 people living on the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Federation) (Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation) annexed Crimean Peninsula   1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/PrPopul2025_Site.xlsx) Предварительная оценка численности постоянного населения на 1 января 2025 года  [ Preliminary estimate of the permanent population as of January 1, 2025] (XLSX) . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_State_Statistics_Service_(Russia)) (Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)) Russian Federal State Statistics Service  (in Russian). 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russian+Federal+State+Statistics+Service&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0+%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%BD%D0%B0+1+%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F+2025+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frosstat.gov.ru%2Fstorage%2Fmediabank%2FPrPopul2025_Site.xlsx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru))  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    1  2  3  4  5   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0)) "World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition)" . www.imf.org . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%28Article+1%29&rft.atitle=The+Constitution+of+the+Russian+Federation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.ru%2Fen%2F10003000-02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20210109173026/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/#geography) "Russia" , The World Factbook , Central Intelligence Agency, 2022, archived from (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/#geography) the original on 9 January 2021, retrieved 14 October 2022  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Russia&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Frussia%2F%23geography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.oed.com/dictionary/russia_n?tab=etymology) "Russia (n.), Etymology" . Oxford English Dictionary . September 2023. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1093%2FOED%2F2223074989) 10.1093/OED/2223074989 . (https://web.archive.org/web/20240122215843/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/russia_n?tab=etymology) Archived from the original on 22 January 2024. Retrieved 3 January 2024 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Russia+%28n.%29%2C+Etymology&rft.date=2023-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2FOED%2F2223074989&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fdictionary%2Frussia_n%3Ftab%3Detymology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kuchkin, V. A. (2014). Русская земля [ Russian land] . In Melnikova, E. A.; Petrukhina, V. Ya. (eds.). Древняя Русь в средневековом мире [ Old Rus' in the medieval world ] (in Russian). Moscow: Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Ladomir. pp. 700– 701. (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%8F&rft.btitle=%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F+%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%8C+%D0%B2+%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pages=700-701&rft.pub=Institute+of+General+History+of+the+Russian+Academy+of+Sciences%3B+Ladomir&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Kuchkin&rft.aufirst=V.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru))  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Hellberg-Hirn, Elena (1998). Soil and Soul: The Symbolic World of Russianness . Aldershot [Hants, England]: Ashgate. p. 54. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85521-871-2) (Special:BookSources/1-85521-871-2) 1-85521-871-2  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soil+and+Soul%3A+The+Symbolic+World+of+Russianness&rft.place=Aldershot+%5BHants%2C+England%5D&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=1-85521-871-2&rft.aulast=Hellberg-Hirn&rft.aufirst=Elena&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Merridale, Catherine (2003). "Redesigning History in Contemporary Russia". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Contemporary_History) (Journal of Contemporary History) Journal of Contemporary History  . 38 (1): 13– 28. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022009403038001961) 10.1177/0022009403038001961 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3180694) 3180694 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Redesigning+History+in+Contemporary+Russia&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-28&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0022009403038001961&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3180694%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Merridale&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boris_Kloss) (Boris Kloss) Kloss, Boris (2012). О происхождении названия "Россия" [ About the origin of the name "Russia" ] . Moskva: ИД ЯСК. p. 3. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-9551-0527-7) (Special:BookSources/978-5-9551-0527-7) 978-5-9551-0527-7  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%9E+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%22%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F%22&rft.place=Moskva&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=%D0%98%D0%94+%D0%AF%D0%A1%D0%9A&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-5-9551-0527-7&rft.aulast=Kloss&rft.aufirst=Boris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Duczko, Wladyslaw (2004). Viking Rus . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brill_Publishers) (Brill Publishers) Brill Publishers . pp. 10– 11. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13874-2) (Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13874-2) 978-90-04-13874-2  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Viking+Rus&rft.pages=10-11&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-13874-2&rft.aulast=Duczko&rft.aufirst=Wladyslaw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Pritsak, Omeljan (5 April 1977). "The Origin of Rus' ". The Russian Review . 36 (3): 249– 273. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.2307%2F128848) 10.2307/128848 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/128848) 128848 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Russian+Review&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+Rus%27&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=249-273&rft.date=1977-04-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F128848&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F128848%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pritsak&rft.aufirst=Omeljan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Bushkovitch, Paul (1 January 2010). "Rus' ". (https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001/acref-9780198662624-e-5118) The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages  . Oxford University Press. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866262-4) (Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866262-4) 978-0-19-866262-4  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20250217021825/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001/acref-9780198662624-e-5118) Archived from the original on 17 February 2025. Retrieved 6 February 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rus%27&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866262-4&rft.aulast=Bushkovitch&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662624.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662624-e-5118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Nazarenko) (Aleksandr Nazarenko) Nazarenko, Aleksandr Vasilevich (2001). (https://web.archive.org/web/20110814143443/http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu) "1. Имя "Русь" в древнейшей западноевропейской языковой традиции (XI–XII века)" [ The name Rus' in the old tradition of Western European language (XI-XII centuries)] . Древняя Русь на международных путях: междисциплинарные очерки культурных, торговых, политических связей IX–XII веков [ Ancient Rus' on international routes: interdisciplinary essays on cultural, trade, and political ties in the 9th–12th centuries ] (in Russian). Languages of the Rus' culture. pp. 40, 42– 45, 49– 50. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-7859-0085-1) (Special:BookSources/978-5-7859-0085-1) 978-5-7859-0085-1  . Archived from (http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu) the original on 14 August 2011. (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1.+%D0%98%D0%BC%D1%8F+%22%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%8C%22+%D0%B2+%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%B9+%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8+%28XI%E2%80%93XII+%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0%29&rft.btitle=%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%8F+%D0%A0%D1%83%D1%81%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0+%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D1%8F%D1%85%3A+%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85%2C+%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85%2C+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%B9+IX%E2%80%93XII+%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2&rft.pages=40%2C+42-45%2C+49-50&rft.pub=Languages+of+the+Rus%27+culture&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-5-7859-0085-1&rft.aulast=Nazarenko&rft.aufirst=Aleksandr+Vasilevich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdgve.csu.ru%2Fdownload%2FNazarenko_2001_01.djvu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru))  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Milner-Gulland, R. R. (1997). The Russians: The People of Europe . Blackwell Publishing. pp. 1– 4. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21849-4) (Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21849-4) 978-0-631-21849-4  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russians%3A+The+People+of+Europe&rft.pages=1-4&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21849-4&rft.aulast=Milner-Gulland&rft.aufirst=R.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitri_Obolensky) (Dimitri Obolensky) Obolensky, Dimitri (1971). "Commentary on the ninth chapter of Constantine Porphyrogenitus' De Administrando lmperio". (https://books.google.com/books?id=wH4JAQAAIAAJ) Byzantium and the Slavs: Collected Studies  . Variorum Reprints. p. 20. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-902089-14-3) (Special:BookSources/978-0-902089-14-3) 978-0-902089-14-3  . Later, the term Ρωσία was borrowed by the Russians, in the form Rosiya , from the terminology used by the Byzantine Patriarchate.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Commentary+on+the+ninth+chapter+of+Constantine+Porphyrogenitus%27+De+Administrando+lmperio&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Slavs%3A+Collected+Studies&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Variorum+Reprints&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0-902089-14-3&rft.aulast=Obolensky&rft.aufirst=Dimitri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwH4JAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   Bushkovitch 2011 , p. 37, "Precisely at this time in written usage the modern term Rossia (a literary expression borrowed from Greek) began to edge out the traditional and vernacular Rus ".  1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Langer, Lawrence N. (2021). Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia (2nd ed.). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 182. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-1942-6) (Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-1942-6) 978-1-5381-1942-6  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Medieval+Russia&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pages=182&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5381-1942-6&rft.aulast=Langer&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Kappeler) (Andreas Kappeler) Kappeler, Andreas (12 July 2010). " "Great Russians" and '"Little Russians" ". In Barker, Adele Marie; Grant, Bruce (eds.). (https://books.google.com/books?id=B-jWhJMt_9EC) The Russia Reader: History, Culture, Politics  . Duke University Press. p. 37. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4648-7) (Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-4648-7) 978-0-8223-4648-7  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Great+Russians%22+and+%27%22Little+Russians%22&rft.btitle=The+Russia+Reader%3A+History%2C+Culture%2C+Politics&rft.pages=37&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2010-07-12&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-4648-7&rft.aulast=Kappeler&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB-jWhJMt_9EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Service_(historian)) (Robert Service (historian)) Service, Robert (30 October 2009). (https://books.google.com/books?id=fZkrAQAAIAAJ) A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century, Third Edition  . Harvard University Press. p. 84. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03493-8) (Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03493-8) 978-0-674-03493-8  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Modern+Russia%3A+From+Tsarism+to+the+Twenty-First+Century%2C+Third+Edition&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009-10-30&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03493-8&rft.aulast=Service&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfZkrAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Shchelinsky, V.E.; Gurova, M.; Tesakov, A.S.; Titov, V.V.; Frolov, P.D.; Simakova, A.N. (30 January 2016). "The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia): Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results)". 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russia%2C+Central+Asia+and+Mongolia&rft.pages=6-7&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-631-20814-3&rft.au=Christian%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9   Curtis 1998 , Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting.  ↑   Ed. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_Reuter) (Timothy Reuter) Timothy Reuter , The New Cambridge Medieval History , Volume 3, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 494-497. (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36447-7) (Special:BookSources/0-521-36447-7) 0-521-36447-7  .  1  2   Curtis 1998 , p. 6, Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting.  ↑   Ward & Thompson 2021 , pp. 5–6.  ↑   Dukes 1998 , p. 7.  ↑   Channon & Hudson 1995 , p. 8.  ↑   Dukes 1998 , pp. 7–8.  ↑   Dukes 1998 , pp. 9–10.  ↑   Galeotti 2024 , pp. 39–40.  ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Donald_Logan) (Francis Donald Logan) Logan, Donald F. (1992). (Free registration required) (https://archive.org/details/vikingsinhistory00loga) The Vikings in History   (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 201. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08396-6) (Special:BookSources/978-0-415-08396-6) 978-0-415-08396-6  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vikings+in+History&rft.pages=201&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-415-08396-6&rft.au=Logan%2C+Donald+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fvikingsinhistory00loga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   Curtis 1998 , pp. 6–7, Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting.  ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Martin, Janet (7 December 1995). (https://www.google.com/books/edition/Medieval_Russia_980_1584/sRCc3TtL9bIC) Medieval Russia, 980-1584  . Cambridge University Press. p. 20. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36832-2) (Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36832-2) 978-0-521-36832-2  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Russia%2C+980-1584&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995-12-07&rft.isbn=978-0-521-36832-2&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FMedieval_Russia_980_1584%2FsRCc3TtL9bIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   Curtis 1998 , pp. 3, 5–7, Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting.  ↑   Channon & Hudson 1995 , p. 26.  ↑   Curtis 1998 , p. 7, Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting.  1  2  3   Ward & Thompson 2021 , p. 19.  1  2   Curtis 1998 , p. 9, Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting.  ↑   Ward & Thompson 2021 , pp. 19–20.  ↑   Bushkovitch 2011 , pp. 13–14.  1  2  3   Curtis 1998 , pp. 9–10, Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting.  ↑   Dukes 1998 , p. 14.  1  2   Channon & Hudson 1995 , p. 16.  ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Riddle, John M.; Black, Winston (25 February 2016). 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(https://www.jstor.org/stable/41052013) "Was The Prince of Novgorod a Third-Rate Bureaucrat after 1136?" . Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas . 56 (1): 72– 113. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)) (ISSN (identifier)) ISSN  (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-4019) 0021-4019 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41052013) 41052013 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+du+Monde+russe&rft.atitle=Novgorod+and+the+%27Novgorodian+Land%27&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=345-363&rft.date=1999-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20171136%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Halperin&rft.aufirst=Charles+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   Galeotti 2024 , p. 84.  1  2   Curtis 1998 , p. 12, Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting.  ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Millar, James R. (2004). (https://books.google.com/books?id=R-KYwQEACAAJ) Encyclopedia of Russian History  . New York: Macmillan Reference USA. p. 688. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865693-9) (Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865693-9) 978-0-02-865693-9  . Ivan III assumed the title of the sovereign of all Russia...  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Russian+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=688&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference+USA&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865693-9&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR-KYwQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Anderson, M.S. (2014). (https://books.google.com/books?id=smCgBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT281) The Origins of the Modern European State System, 1494–1618  . Routledge. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89275-5) (Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89275-5) 978-1-317-89275-5  . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Modern+History&rft.atitle=Barbarossa+Revisited%3A+A+Critical+Reappraisal+of+the+Opening+Stages+of+the+Russo-German+Campaign+%28June%E2%80%93December+1941%29&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27-46&rft.date=1982-03&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10945%2F44218&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1906049%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F244076&rft.aulast=Stolfi&rft.aufirst=Russel+H.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Wilson, David (2018). The Eastern Front Campaign: An Operational Level Analysis . Eschenburg Press. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-789-12193-3) (Special:BookSources/978-1-789-12193-3) 978-1-789-12193-3  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eastern+Front+Campaign%3A+An+Operational+Level+Analysis&rft.pub=Eschenburg+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-789-12193-3&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Chapoutot, Johann (2018). The Law of Blood: Thinking and Acting as a Nazi . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University_Press) (Harvard University Press) Harvard University Press . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66043-4) (Special:BookSources/978-0-674-66043-4) 978-0-674-66043-4  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Law+of+Blood%3A+Thinking+and+Acting+as+a+Nazi&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-674-66043-4&rft.aulast=Chapoutot&rft.aufirst=Johann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  D. Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin . New York: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_Books) (Basic Books) Basic Books . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00239-9) (Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00239-9) 978-0-465-00239-9  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bloodlands%3A+Europe+Between+Hitler+and+Stalin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00239-9&rft.aulast=D.+Snyder&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Assmann, Kurt (January 1950). "The Battle for Moscow, Turning Point of the War". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Affairs) (Foreign Affairs) Foreign Affairs  . 28 (2). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations) (Council on Foreign Relations) Council on Foreign Relations : 309– 326. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.2307%2F20030251) 10.2307/20030251 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20030251) 20030251 . 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(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times) (The New York Times) The New York Times  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20210817223858/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/15/world/as-expected-putin-easily-wins-a-second-term-in-russia.html) Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=As+Expected%2C+Putin+Easily+Wins+a+Second+Term+in+Russia&rft.date=2004-03-15&rft.aulast=Mydans&rft.aufirst=Seth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2004%2F03%2F15%2Fworld%2Fas-expected-putin-easily-wins-a-second-term-in-russia.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Ellyatt, Holly (11 October 2021). (https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/11/russias-economy-under-president-putin-in-charts.html) "5 charts show Russia's economic highs and lows under Putin" . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CEPS+Policy+Briefs&rft.atitle=Post-Mortem+on+Europe%27s+First+War+of+the+21st+Century&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.pages=1-8&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1333553%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Emerson&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.france24.com/en/20081119-moscow-edges-towards-six-year-presidential-terms-russia) "Moscow edges towards six-year presidential terms" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France_24) (France 24) France 24  . 19 November 2008. (https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181520/https://www.france24.com/en/20081119-moscow-edges-towards-six-year-presidential-terms-russia) Archived from the original on 6 June 2025. Retrieved 5 March 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=France+24&rft.atitle=Moscow+edges+towards+six-year+presidential+terms&rft.date=2008-11-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.france24.com%2Fen%2F20081119-moscow-edges-towards-six-year-presidential-terms-russia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Black, Phil; Doughtery, Jill (5 March 2012). (https://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/05/world/europe/russia-election/index.html) "Observers slam Russian vote as Putin declares victory" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN) (CNN) CNN  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20250401013503/https://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/05/world/europe/russia-election/index.html) Archived from the original on 1 April 2025. Retrieved 5 March 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Observers+slam+Russian+vote+as+Putin+declares+victory&rft.date=2012-03-05&rft.aulast=Black&rft.aufirst=Phil&rft.au=Doughtery%2C+Jill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2012%2F03%2F05%2Fworld%2Feurope%2Frussia-election%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Yekelchyk, Serhy (2020). Ukraine: What Everyone Needs to Know (2nd ed.). New York: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press) (Oxford University Press) Oxford University Press . p. 117. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-753213-3) (Special:BookSources/978-0-19-753213-3) 978-0-19-753213-3  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)) (OCLC (identifier)) OCLC  (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1190722543) 1190722543 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+What+Everyone+Needs+to+Know&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=117&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1190722543&rft.isbn=978-0-19-753213-3&rft.aulast=Yekelchyk&rft.aufirst=Serhy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  DeBenedictis, Kent (2022). (https://books.google.com/books?id=CkaIEAAAQBAJ) Russian 'Hybrid Warfare' and the Annexation of Crimea: The Modern Application of Soviet Political Warfare  . Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 1– 7. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4003-4) (Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-4003-4) 978-0-7556-4003-4  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+%27Hybrid+Warfare%27+and+the+Annexation+of+Crimea%3A+The+Modern+Application+of+Soviet+Political+Warfare&rft.pages=1-7&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-7556-4003-4&rft.aulast=DeBenedictis&rft.aufirst=Kent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DCkaIEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Galeotti, Mark (2023). (https://books.google.com/books?id=EmnGEAAAQBAJ) Putin Takes Crimea 2014: Grey-zone Warfare Opens the Russia-Ukraine Conflict  . Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 4. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-5385-1) (Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-5385-1) 978-1-4728-5385-1  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Putin+Takes+Crimea+2014%3A+Grey-zone+Warfare+Opens+the+Russia-Ukraine+Conflict&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-4728-5385-1&rft.aulast=Galeotti&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEmnGEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kofman, Michael; Migacheva, Katya; Nichiporuk, Brian; Radin, Andrew; Tkacheva, Olesya; Oberholtzer, Jenny (2017). (https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1400/RR1498/RAND_RR1498.pdf) Lessons from Russia's Operations in Crimea and Eastern Ukraine (PDF) (Report). Santa Monica: RAND Corporation. pp. xii, xiii, 33– 34, 48. (https://web.archive.org/web/20220217091710/http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1400/RR1498/RAND_RR1498.pdf) Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2022. 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(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.55540%2F0031-1723.2944) 10.55540/0031-1723.2944 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Parameters&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+Frozen+Conflicts+and+the+Donbas&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.55540%2F0031-1723.2944&rft.aulast=Grossman&rft.aufirst=Erik+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kofman, Michael (2024). "Chapter Six The Russia-Ukraine War Military Operations and Battlefield Dynamics". In Brands, Hal (ed.). (https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/oa_edited_volume/chapter/3881920) War in Ukraine: Conflict, Strategy, and the Return of a Fractured World  . Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 101. 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(https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4gj20xzw39o) "Four years into its full-scale war in Ukraine, Russia is feeling the effects" . BBC . Retrieved 2 May 2026 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Four+years+into+its+full-scale+war+in+Ukraine%2C+Russia+is+feeling+the+effects&rft.date=2026-02-23&rft.aulast=Rosenberg&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Farticles%2Fc4gj20xzw39o&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Herb, Jeremy; (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Starr) (Barbara Starr) Starr, Barbara ; Kaufman, Ellie (24 February 2022). (https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/24/politics/us-military-ukraine-russia/index.html) "US orders 7,000 more troops to Europe following Russia's invasion of Ukraine" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN) (CNN) CNN . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Coastline+%E2%80%93+The+World+Factbook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Ffield%2Fcoastline%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia#ref38573) "Russia – Land" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica) (Encyclopædia Britannica) Encyclopædia Britannica  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20080605093450/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38602/Russia#ref38573) Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 14 December 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russia+%E2%80%93+Land&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FRussia%23ref38573&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Clark, Stuart (28 July 2015). (https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2015/jul/28/pluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet) "Pluto: ten things we now know about the dwarf planet" . The Guardian . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220329101742/https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2015/jul/28/pluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet) Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Pluto%3A+ten+things+we+now+know+about+the+dwarf+planet&rft.date=2015-07-28&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2Facross-the-universe%2F2015%2Fjul%2F28%2Fpluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20210109173026/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/) "Russia – The World Factbook" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Factbook) (The World Factbook) The World Factbook  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency) (Central Intelligence Agency) Central Intelligence Agency . Archived from (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/) the original on 9 January 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Russia+%E2%80%93+The+World+Factbook&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Frussia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=300260&vtab) "Klyuchevskoy" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Volcanism_Program) (Global Volcanism Program) Global Volcanism Program  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution) (Smithsonian Institution) Smithsonian Institution . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203017/https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=300260&vtab) Archived from the original on 26 March 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Global+Volcanism+Program&rft.atitle=Klyuchevskoy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvolcano.si.edu%2Fvolcano.cfm%3Fvn%3D300260%26vtab&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87198/the-ural-mountains) "The Ural Mountains" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Earth_Observatory) (NASA Earth Observatory) NASA Earth Observatory  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA) (NASA) NASA . 13 July 2011. (https://web.archive.org/web/20220412030222/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87198/the-ural-mountains) Archived from the original on 12 April 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NASA+Earth+Observatory&rft.atitle=The+Ural+Mountains&rft.date=2011-07-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2Fimages%2F87198%2Fthe-ural-mountains&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/Land#ref34534) "Europe – Land" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica) (Encyclopædia Britannica) Encyclopædia Britannica  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220315194552/https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/Land#ref34534) Archived from the original on 15 March 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2022 . The lowest terrain in Europe, virtually lacking relief, stands at the head of the Caspian Sea; there the Caspian Depression reaches some 95 feet (29 metres) below sea level.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Europe+%E2%80%93+Land&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FEurope%2FLand%23ref34534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/russia/) "Russia" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Arctic_Institute_–_Center_for_Circumpolar_Security_Studies) (The Arctic Institute – Center for Circumpolar Security Studies) The Arctic Institute – Center for Circumpolar Security Studies  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203017/https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/russia/) Archived from the original on 26 March 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Arctic+Institute+%E2%80%93+Center+for+Circumpolar+Security+Studies&rft.atitle=Russia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thearcticinstitute.org%2Fcountries%2Frussia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Aziz, Ziryan (28 February 2020). (https://www.euronews.com/travel/2021/02/24/island-hopping-in-russia-sakhalin-kuril-islands-and-kamchatka-peninsula) "Island hopping in Russia: Sakhalin, Kuril Islands and Kamchatka Peninsula" . Euronews . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220329101742/https://www.euronews.com/travel/2021/02/24/island-hopping-in-russia-sakhalin-kuril-islands-and-kamchatka-peninsula) Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2021 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Atlas+Obscura&rft.atitle=Diomede+Islands+%E2%80%93+Russia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.atlasobscura.com%2Fplaces%2Fdiomede-islands&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173647/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/total-renewable-water-resources/) "Total renewable water resources" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Factbook) (The World Factbook) The World Factbook  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency) (Central Intelligence Agency) Central Intelligence Agency . Archived from (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/total-renewable-water-resources/) the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 9 July 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Total+renewable+water+resources&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Ffield%2Ftotal-renewable-water-resources%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/baikal/) "Lake Baikal – A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey) (United States Geological Survey) United States Geological Survey . (https://web.archive.org/web/20050214200542/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/baikal/) Archived from the original on 14 February 2005. Retrieved 26 December 2007 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GeoJournal&rft.atitle=Ecological+and+Geographical+Characteristics+of+the+Coastal+Zone+of+the+Black+Sea&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=169&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00717701&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992GeoJo..27..169D&rft.aulast=Drozdov&rft.aufirst=V.+A.&rft.au=Glezer%2C+O.+B.&rft.au=Nefedova%2C+T.+G.&rft.au=Shabdurasulov%2C+I.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/10/as-wildfires-engulf-russian-region-putin-urges-authorities-to-take-stronger-action-to-prev) "Putin urges authorities to take action as wildfires engulf Siberia" . euronews . 10 May 2022. 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"The Limits of Muscovite Autocracy. The Relations between the Grand Prince and the boyars in the light of Iosif Volotskii's "Prosvetitel"' ". Cahiers du Monde Russe . 46 (1/2). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_for_Advanced_Studies_in_the_Social_Sciences) (School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences) School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences (EHESS): 265– 276. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fmonderusse.8801) 10.4000/monderusse.8801 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20174958) 20174958 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+du+Monde+Russe&rft.atitle=The+Limits+of+Muscovite+Autocracy.+The+Relations+between+the+Grand+Prince+and+the+boyars+in+the+light+of+Iosif+Volotskii%27s+%22Prosvetitel%22%27&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=265-276&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4000%2Fmonderusse.8801&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20174958%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Soldat&rft.aufirst=Cornelia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Raba, Joel (1976). "The Authority of the Muscovite Ruler at the Dawn of the Modern Era". Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas . 24 (3): 321– 344. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41045311) 41045311 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jahrb%C3%BCcher+f%C3%BCr+Geschichte+Osteuropas&rft.atitle=The+Authority+of+the+Muscovite+Ruler+at+the+Dawn+of+the+Modern+Era&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=321-344&rft.date=1976&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41045311%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Raba&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Ragsdale, Hugh (16 September 2016). (https://books.google.com/books?id=WrYYDQAAQBAJ) The Russian Tragedy: The Burden of History  . Routledge. pp. 18– 20, 162– 163. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-48079-4) (Special:BookSources/978-1-315-48079-4) 978-1-315-48079-4  . The revolution that Ivan accomplished was the great watershed of Russian political tradition. Ivan's statecraft was the great prototype, a classic Russian system of absolutism and militarism under cautious and scrupulous control... Ivan III laid the foundations of Russian absolutism... In a serious break with tradition, Russia entered the constitutional era... Russian autocracy came to an end, and the Revolution of 1905 soon withered and died—not, however, without fateful consequences.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russian+Tragedy%3A+The+Burden+of+History&rft.pages=18-20%2C+162-163&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016-09-16&rft.isbn=978-1-315-48079-4&rft.aulast=Ragsdale&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWrYYDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Quam, Joel; Campbell, G. Scott (2020). "97". (https://cod.pressbooks.pub/westernworlddailyreadingsgeography/chapter/russian-domain-political-geography-ii/#:~:text=The%20political%20history%20of%20the,more%20so%20that%20most%20countries) The Western World: Daily Readings on Geography  . College of DuPage Digital Press. Retrieved 16 December 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=97&rft.btitle=The+Western+World%3A+Daily+Readings+on+Geography&rft.pub=College+of+DuPage+Digital+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Quam&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft.au=Campbell%2C+G.+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcod.pressbooks.pub%2Fwesternworlddailyreadingsgeography%2Fchapter%2Frussian-domain-political-geography-ii%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520political%2520history%2520of%2520the%2Cmore%2520so%2520that%2520most%2520countries&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links)  (./Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_August_2026)  [ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot) (Wikipedia:Link rot) (Dead link tagged August 2026) dead link   ]     ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.husj.harvard.edu/articles/did-russians-ever-hope-for-non-autocratic-rule) "Did Russians Ever Hope for Non-Autocratic Rule?" . Harvard Ukrainian Studies . 30 November 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Ukrainian+Studies&rft.atitle=Did+Russians+Ever+Hope+for+Non-Autocratic+Rule%3F&rft.date=2018-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.husj.harvard.edu%2Farticles%2Fdid-russians-ever-hope-for-non-autocratic-rule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2  3  4   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Croissant, Aurel; Tomini, Luca (14 May 2024). (https://books.google.com/books?id=_RAGEQAAQBAJ) The Routledge Handbook of Autocratization  . Taylor & Francis. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-040-04018-8) (Special:BookSources/978-1-040-04018-8) 978-1-040-04018-8  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181612/https://books.google.com/books?id=_RAGEQAAQBAJ) Archived from the original on 6 June 2025. Retrieved 13 March 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+Autocratization&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2024-05-14&rft.isbn=978-1-040-04018-8&rft.aulast=Croissant&rft.aufirst=Aurel&rft.au=Tomini%2C+Luca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_RAGEQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kjell Engelbrekt; Bertil Nygren, eds. (2014). (https://books.google.com/books?id=UhwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48) Russia and Europe: Building Bridges, Digging Trenches  . Routledge. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-99200-1) (Special:BookSources/978-1-136-99200-1) 978-1-136-99200-1  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20230813133217/https://books.google.com/books?id=UhwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48) Archived from the original on 13 August 2023. Retrieved 24 July 2023 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+and+Europe%3A+Building+Bridges%2C+Digging+Trenches&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-136-99200-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUhwiAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kiyan, Olga (9 April 2020). (https://hir.harvard.edu/russia-democratic-backsliding-the-future-of-putinism/) "Russia & Democratic Backsliding: The Future of Putinism" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_International_Review) (Harvard International Review) Harvard International Review  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_International_Relations_Council) (Harvard International Relations Council) Harvard International Relations Council . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220224213448/https://hir.harvard.edu/russia-democratic-backsliding-the-future-of-putinism/) Archived from the original on 24 February 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+International+Review&rft.atitle=Russia+%26+Democratic+Backsliding%3A+The+Future+of+Putinism&rft.date=2020-04-09&rft.aulast=Kiyan&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhir.harvard.edu%2Frussia-democratic-backsliding-the-future-of-putinism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kallmer, Brent (6 April 2023). (https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-putin-myth/#f3-text) "The Putin Myth" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Democracy) (Journal of Democracy) Journal of Democracy - (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press) (Johns Hopkins University Press) Johns Hopkins University Press  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20241221070113/https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-putin-myth/#f3-text) Archived from the original on 21 December 2024. Retrieved 4 January 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Democracy+-+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.atitle=The+Putin+Myth&rft.date=2023-04-06&rft.aulast=Kallmer&rft.aufirst=Brent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalofdemocracy.org%2Farticles%2Fthe-putin-myth%2F%23f3-text&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kuzio, Taras (2016). "Nationalism and authoritarianism in Russia". Communist and Post-Communist Studies . 49 (1). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_Press) (University of California Press) University of California Press : 1– 11. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.postcomstud.2015.12.002) 10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.12.002 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/48610429) 48610429 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communist+and+Post-Communist+Studies&rft.atitle=Nationalism+and+authoritarianism+in+Russia&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-11&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.postcomstud.2015.12.002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48610429%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kuzio&rft.aufirst=Taras&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Krzywdzinski, Martin (2020). (https://books.google.com/books?id=gz5MDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA252) Consent and Control in the Authoritarian Workplace: Russia and China Compared  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press) (Oxford University Press) Oxford University Press . p. 252. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-252902-2) (Special:BookSources/978-0-19-252902-2) 978-0-19-252902-2  . officially a democratic state with the rule of law, in practice an authoritarian dictatorship   (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consent+and+Control+in+the+Authoritarian+Workplace%3A+Russia+and+China+Compared&rft.pages=252&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-252902-2&rft.aulast=Krzywdzinski&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgz5MDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Fischer, Sabine (2022). (https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/256753) Russia on the road to dictatorship: Internal political repercussions of the attack on Ukraine . SWP Comment (Report). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.18449%2F2022C30) 10.18449/2022C30 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)) (Hdl (identifier)) hdl :(https://hdl.handle.net/10419%2F256753) 10419/256753 . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220911191555/https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/256753) Archived from the original on 11 September 2022. Retrieved 11 September 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Russia+on+the+road+to+dictatorship%3A+Internal+political+repercussions+of+the+attack+on+Ukraine&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10419%2F256753&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18449%2F2022C30&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.econstor.eu%2Fhandle%2F10419%2F256753&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Chapman, Hannah S. (29 October 2024). (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fgov.2024.18) "Shocks to the System: Electoral Manipulation, Protests and the Evolution of Political Trust in Russia" . Government and Opposition . 60 (2): 496– 516. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(Freely accessible) (https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fgov.2024.18) 10.1017/gov.2024.18  . Authoritarian regimes, particularly personalist ones such as Russia, frequently justify their rule based on the views of the leading authority.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Government+and+Opposition&rft.atitle=Shocks+to+the+System%3A+Electoral+Manipulation%2C+Protests+and+the+Evolution+of+Political+Trust+in+Russia&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=496-516&rft.date=2024-10-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fgov.2024.18&rft.aulast=Chapman&rft.aufirst=Hannah+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252Fgov.2024.18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Özdamar, Özgür; Yanik, Lerna K (9 September 2024). (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiiae181) "Populist hyperpersonalization and politicization of foreign policy institutions" . International Affairs . 100 (5): 1835– 1856. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(Freely accessible) (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fia%2Fiiae181) 10.1093/ia/iiae181  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)) (ISSN (identifier)) ISSN  (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-5850) 0020-5850 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Affairs&rft.atitle=Populist+hyperpersonalization+and+politicization+of+foreign+policy+institutions&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1835-1856&rft.date=2024-09-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fia%2Fiiae181&rft.issn=0020-5850&rft.aulast=%C3%96zdamar&rft.aufirst=%C3%96zg%C3%BCr&rft.au=Yanik%2C+Lerna+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fia%252Fiiae181&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Mamaev, Bogdan (30 June 2024). (https://books.google.com/books?id=yXIMEQAAQBAJ) The Evolution of Authoritarianism and Contentious Action in Russia  . Cambridge University Press. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-56066-5) (Special:BookSources/978-1-009-56066-5) 978-1-009-56066-5  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181615/https://books.google.com/books?id=yXIMEQAAQBAJ) Archived from the original on 6 June 2025. Retrieved 13 March 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Evolution+of+Authoritarianism+and+Contentious+Action+in+Russia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2024-06-30&rft.isbn=978-1-009-56066-5&rft.aulast=Mamaev&rft.aufirst=Bogdan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyXIMEQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Lindstaedt, Natasha (1 June 2024). "Russia's Descent into Totalitarianism". Political Insight . 15 (2): 12– 15. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1177%2F20419058241260782) 10.1177/20419058241260782 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)) (ISSN (identifier)) ISSN  (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2041-9058) 2041-9058 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Insight&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+Descent+into+Totalitarianism&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=12-15&rft.date=2024-06-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F20419058241260782&rft.issn=2041-9058&rft.aulast=Lindstaedt&rft.aufirst=Natasha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Karatnycky, Adrian (24 March 2024). (https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/03/24/russia-putin-stalin-soviet-election-war-repression-political-prisoners/) "Russia Is Back to the Stalinist Future" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Policy) (Foreign Policy) Foreign Policy  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20250330185750/https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/03/24/russia-putin-stalin-soviet-election-war-repression-political-prisoners/) Archived from the original on 30 March 2025. Retrieved 23 March 2025 . A recent study by exiled Russian journalists from Proekt Media used data to determine that Russia is more politically repressive today than the Soviet Union under all leaders since Joseph Stalin.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=Russia+Is+Back+to+the+Stalinist+Future&rft.date=2024-03-24&rft.aulast=Karatnycky&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2024%2F03%2F24%2Frussia-putin-stalin-soviet-election-war-repression-political-prisoners%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kolesnikov, Andrei. (https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2022/04/putins-war-has-moved-russia-from-authoritarianism-to-hybrid-totalitarianism?lang=en) "Putin's War Has Moved Russia From Authoritarianism to Hybrid Totalitarianism" . Carnegie Endowment for International Peace . (https://web.archive.org/web/20250307193757/https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2022/04/putins-war-has-moved-russia-from-authoritarianism-to-hybrid-totalitarianism?lang=en) Archived from the original on 7 March 2025. Retrieved 4 March 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Carnegie+Endowment+for+International+Peace&rft.atitle=Putin%27s+War+Has+Moved+Russia+From+Authoritarianism+to+Hybrid+Totalitarianism&rft.aulast=Kolesnikov&rft.aufirst=Andrei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcarnegieendowment.org%2Fposts%2F2022%2F04%2Fputins-war-has-moved-russia-from-authoritarianism-to-hybrid-totalitarianism%3Flang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Lindstaedt, Natasha (June 2024). "Russia's Descent into Totalitarianism". Political Insight . 15 (2): 12– 15. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1177%2F20419058241260782) 10.1177/20419058241260782 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Insight&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+Descent+into+Totalitarianism&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=12-15&rft.date=2024-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F20419058241260782&rft.aulast=Lindstaedt&rft.aufirst=Natasha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Brian D. Taylor (2018). The Code of Putinism . Oxford University Press. pp. 2– 7. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-086731-7) (Special:BookSources/978-0-19-086731-7) 978-0-19-086731-7  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)) (OCLC (identifier)) OCLC  (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1022076734) 1022076734 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Code+of+Putinism&rft.pages=2-7&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1022076734&rft.isbn=978-0-19-086731-7&rft.au=Brian+D.+Taylor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://base.garant.ru/12119810/) "Постановление Конституционного Суда РФ от 07.06.2000 N 10-П "По делу о проверке конституционности отдельных положений Конституции Республики Алтай и Федерального закона "Об общих принципах организации законодательных (представительных) и исполнительных органов государственной власти субъектов Российской Федерации" | ГАРАНТ" . base.garant.ru . (https://web.archive.org/web/20230410082832/https://base.garant.ru/12119810/) Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023 . 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(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fpolq.12988) 10.1002/polq.12988 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/45284691) 45284691 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Political+Science+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Soviet+Legacy+in+Russian+Foreign+Policy&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=585-609&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fpolq.12988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45284691%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Jintro, Pauly (February 2025). Bunde, Tobias; Eisentraut, Sophie; Schütte, Leonard (eds.). "Russia: The Czar's Gambit". Munich Security Report 2025: Multipolarization . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_Security_Conference) (Munich Security Conference) Munich Security Conference : 79– 85. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.47342%2FEZUC8623-5) 10.47342/EZUC8623-5 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Munich+Security+Report+2025%3A+Multipolarization&rft.atitle=Russia%3A+The+Czar%27s+Gambit&rft.pages=79-85&rft.date=2025-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.47342%2FEZUC8623-5&rft.aulast=Jintro&rft.aufirst=Pauly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Sweijs, T.; De Spiegeleire, S.; de Jong, S.; Oosterveld, W.; Roos, H.; Bekkers, F.; Usanov, A.; de Rave, R.; Jans, K. (2017). (https://books.google.com/books?id=1EonDwAAQBAJ) Volatility and friction in the age of disintermediation  . The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies. p. 43. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-92102-46-1) (Special:BookSources/978-94-92102-46-1) 978-94-92102-46-1  . We qualify the following states as great powers: China, Europe, India, Japan, Russia and the United States.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Volatility+and+friction+in+the+age+of+disintermediation&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=The+Hague+Centre+for+Strategic+Studies&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-94-92102-46-1&rft.aulast=Sweijs&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.au=De+Spiegeleire%2C+S.&rft.au=de+Jong%2C+S.&rft.au=Oosterveld%2C+W.&rft.au=Roos%2C+H.&rft.au=Bekkers%2C+F.&rft.au=Usanov%2C+A.&rft.au=de+Rave%2C+R.&rft.au=Jans%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1EonDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Ellman, Michael (2023). (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1744137422000388) "Russia as a great power: from 1815 to the present day. Part II" . Journal of Institutional Economics . 19 (2): 159– 174. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(Freely accessible) (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1744137422000388) 10.1017/S1744137422000388  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)) (ISSN (identifier)) ISSN  (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1744-1374) 1744-1374 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Institutional+Economics&rft.atitle=Russia+as+a+great+power%3A+from+1815+to+the+present+day.+Part+II&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=159-174&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1744137422000388&rft.issn=1744-1374&rft.aulast=Ellman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS1744137422000388&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Neumann, Iver B (20 May 2008). (https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjird.2008.7) "Russia as a Great Power, 1815–2007" . Journal of International Relations and Development . 11 (11): 128– 151. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(Freely accessible) (https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fjird.2008.7) 10.1057/jird.2008.7  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Relations+and+Development&rft.atitle=Russia+as+a+Great+Power%2C+1815%E2%80%932007&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=128-151&rft.date=2008-05-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2Fjird.2008.7&rft.aulast=Neumann&rft.aufirst=Iver+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1057%252Fjird.2008.7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Taylor, Brian D. (2024). "Power, status, and greatness". Russian Politics: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford University Press. pp. 21– 40. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780197516027.003.0002) 10.1093/actrade/9780197516027.003.0002 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-751602-7) (Special:BookSources/978-0-19-751602-7) 978-0-19-751602-7  . Although the lines sometimes can be blurry, there are only three countries in the world that international relations experts typically classify as having been a great power for the past 300 years: Britain, France, and Russia... Russia's geographic size, nuclear weapons, and permanent UN Security Council seat guarantee its continuing great power status... Yet the greater economic power of the United States, the European Union, and China, as well as rising countries... meant that Russia's future standing in the world remained in doubt even before the Russo-Ukraine War.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Power%2C+status%2C+and+greatness&rft.btitle=Russian+Politics%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pages=21-40&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Factrade%2F9780197516027.003.0002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-751602-7&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Brian+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Šćepanović, Janko (22 March 2023). "Still a great power? Russia's status dilemmas post-Ukraine war". Journal of Contemporary European Studies . 32 (1). Informa UK Limited: 80– 95. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14782804.2023.2193878) 10.1080/14782804.2023.2193878 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)) (ISSN (identifier)) ISSN  (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1478-2804) 1478-2804 . Drezner, as well as others like Dan Depetris, agrees that, on principle, Russia can still be counted among the great powers... At the same time, scholars rightly wonder what rank within the great power club Russia belongs to...  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+European+Studies&rft.atitle=Still+a+great+power%3F+Russia%27s+status+dilemmas+post-Ukraine+war&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=80-95&rft.date=2023-03-22&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14782804.2023.2193878&rft.issn=1478-2804&rft.aulast=%C5%A0%C4%87epanovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Janko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Fish) (Steven Fish) Fish, M. Steven ; Samarin, Melissa; Way, Lucan Ahmad (2017). "Russia and the CIS in 2016". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Survey) (Asian Survey) Asian Survey  . 57 (1). 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(2014). "Sino-Russian Relations in a Changing World Order". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Studies_Quarterly) (Strategic Studies Quarterly) Strategic Studies Quarterly  . 8 (4). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_University_Press) (Air University Press) Air University Press : 47– 69. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/26270816) 26270816 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Strategic+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Sino-Russian+Relations+in+a+Changing+World+Order&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=47-69&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26270816%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bolt&rft.aufirst=Paul+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Tamkin, Emily (8 July 2020). (https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/russia-india-relations/) "Why India and Russia Are Going to Stay Friends" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Policy) (Foreign Policy) Foreign Policy  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20210112225311/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/russia-india-relations/) Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foreign+Policy&rft.atitle=Why+India+and+Russia+Are+Going+to+Stay+Friends&rft.date=2020-07-08&rft.aulast=Tamkin&rft.aufirst=Emily&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforeignpolicy.com%2F2020%2F07%2F08%2Frussia-india-relations%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Özkan, Arda; Tüysüzoglu, Göktürk (April 2024). (https://books.google.com/books?id=KxNhEQAAQBAJ) Conflict Areas in the Caucasus and Central Asia  . Bloomsbury Academic. p. 312. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-5127-3) (Special:BookSources/978-1-7936-5127-3) 978-1-7936-5127-3  . Russia holds considerable military, economic, and political power over the Central Asia and Caucasus.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conflict+Areas+in+the+Caucasus+and+Central+Asia&rft.pages=312&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2024-04&rft.isbn=978-1-7936-5127-3&rft.aulast=%C3%96zkan&rft.aufirst=Arda&rft.au=T%C3%BCys%C3%BCzoglu%2C+G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKxNhEQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kolstø, Pål (July 2011). "Beyond Russia, becoming local: Trajectories of adaption to the fall of the Soviet Union among ethnic Russians in the former Soviet Republics". Journal of Eurasian Studies . 2 (2): 153– 163. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.euras.2011.03.006) 10.1016/j.euras.2011.03.006 . This is indeed true, Russia does insist that the country has a right and a duty to pose as the protector of all Russians in the so-called 'near abroad'.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Eurasian+Studies&rft.atitle=Beyond+Russia%2C+becoming+local%3A+Trajectories+of+adaption+to+the+fall+of+the+Soviet+Union+among+ethnic+Russians+in+the+former+Soviet+Republics&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=153-163&rft.date=2011-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.euras.2011.03.006&rft.aulast=Kolst%C3%B8&rft.aufirst=P%C3%A5l&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Nation, R Craig. (2015). (https://doi.org/10.11610%2FConnections.14.2.01) "Russia and the Caucasus" . Connections . 14 (2). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partnership_for_Peace_Consortium_of_Defense_Academies_and_Security_Studies_Institutes) (Partnership for Peace Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes) Partnership for Peace Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes : 1– 12. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(Freely accessible) (https://doi.org/10.11610%2FConnections.14.2.01) 10.11610/Connections.14.2.01  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/26326394) 26326394 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Connections&rft.atitle=Russia+and+the+Caucasus&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1-12&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11610%2FConnections.14.2.01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26326394%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nation&rft.aufirst=R+Craig.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.11610%252FConnections.14.2.01&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Swanström, Niklas (2012). "Central Asia and Russian Relations: Breaking Out of the Russian Orbit?". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Journal_of_World_Affairs) (Brown Journal of World Affairs) Brown Journal of World Affairs  . 19 (1): 101– 113. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24590931) 24590931 . (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest) (ProQuest) ProQuest  (https://www.proquest.com/docview/1326331335) 1326331335 . The Central Asian states have been dependent on Russia since they gained independence in 1991, not just in economic and energy terms, but also militarily and politically.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brown+Journal+of+World+Affairs&rft.atitle=Central+Asia+and+Russian+Relations%3A+Breaking+Out+of+the+Russian+Orbit%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=101-113&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24590931%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Swanstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Niklas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Baev, Pavel (May 2021). (https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/baev_turkey_russia_2021.pdf) "Russia and Turkey: Strategic Partners and Rivals" (PDF) . Russie.Nei.Reports . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_français_des_relations_internationales) (Institut français des relations internationales) Ifri . (https://web.archive.org/web/20211027233151/https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/baev_turkey_russia_2021.pdf) Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 6 January 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russie.Nei.Reports&rft.atitle=Russia+and+Turkey%3A+Strategic+Partners+and+Rivals&rft.date=2021-05&rft.aulast=Baev&rft.aufirst=Pavel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ifri.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fatoms%2Ffiles%2Fbaev_turkey_russia_2021.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Tarock, Adam (June 1997). "Iran and Russia in 'Strategic Alliance' ". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_World_Quarterly) (Third World Quarterly) Third World Quarterly  . 18 (2). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_&_Francis) (Taylor & Francis) Taylor & Francis : 207– 223. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01436599714911) 10.1080/01436599714911 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3993220) 3993220 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Third+World+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Iran+and+Russia+in+%27Strategic+Alliance%27&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=207-223&rft.date=1997-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01436599714911&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3993220%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tarock&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Howell, Dr Edward (4 December 2024). (https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2024-12/2024-12-04-north-korea-russia-dangerous-partnership-howell.pdf) "North Korea and Russia's dangerous partnership" (PDF) . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatham_House) (Chatham House) Chatham House  . Westminister, London. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.55317%2F9781784136321) 10.55317/9781784136321 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78413-632-1) (Special:BookSources/978-1-78413-632-1) 978-1-78413-632-1  . Retrieved 12 March 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chatham+House&rft.atitle=North+Korea+and+Russia%27s+dangerous+partnership&rft.date=2024-12-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.55317%2F9781784136321&rft.isbn=978-1-78413-632-1&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=Dr+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chathamhouse.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2024-12%2F2024-12-04-north-korea-russia-dangerous-partnership-howell.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  {{(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal) (Template:Cite journal) cite journal }} :  CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_periodical_has_ISBN) (Category:CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN) link ) (./Category:CS1_maint:_periodical_has_ISBN)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/ukraine-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-russia) "Ukraine cuts diplomatic ties with Russia after invasion" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network) (Al Jazeera Media Network) Al Jazeera  . 24 February 2022. (https://web.archive.org/web/20220305163901/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/ukraine-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-russia) Archived from the original on 5 March 2022. Retrieved 7 October 2022 . Ukraine has cut all diplomatic ties with Russia after President Vladimir Putin authorised an all-out invasion of Ukraine by land, air and sea.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Ukraine+cuts+diplomatic+ties+with+Russia+after+invasion&rft.date=2022-02-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2022%2F2%2F24%2Fukraine-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-russia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kanerva, Ilkka (2018). "Russia and the West". Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development (12). Center for International Relations and Sustainable Development: 112– 119. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/48573515) 48573515 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Horizons%3A+Journal+of+International+Relations+and+Sustainable+Development&rft.atitle=Russia+and+the+West&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=112-119&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48573515%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kanerva&rft.aufirst=Ilkka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Cerulli, Rossella (1 September 2019). Russian Influence in the Middle East: Economics, Energy, and Soft Power (Report). American Security Project. pp. 1– 21. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep19825) resrep19825 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Russian+Influence+in+the+Middle+East%3A+Economics%2C+Energy%2C+and+Soft+Power&rft.pages=1-21&rft.pub=American+Security+Project&rft.date=2019-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fresrep19825%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cerulli&rft.aufirst=Rossella&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kassis, Kelly (11 November 2025). (https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/russias-enduring-grip-syria) "Russia's Enduring Grip on Syria" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_United_Services_Institute) (Royal United Services Institute) Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) . London. Retrieved 6 January 2026 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Royal+United+Services+Institute+%28RUSI%29&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+Enduring+Grip+on+Syria&rft.date=2025-11-11&rft.aulast=Kassis&rft.aufirst=Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rusi.org%2Fexplore-our-research%2Fpublications%2Fcommentary%2Frussias-enduring-grip-syria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/after-assad-russias-role-and-leverage-in-the-middle-east-224080) "After Assad: Russia's Role and Leverage in the Middle East" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_International_Political_Studies) (Institute for International Political Studies) Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI) . Milan. 8 December 2025. Retrieved 6 January 2026 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Institute+for+International+Political+Studies+%28ISPI%29&rft.atitle=After+Assad%3A+Russia%27s+Role+and+Leverage+in+the+Middle+East&rft.date=2025-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ispionline.it%2Fen%2Fpublication%2Fafter-assad-russias-role-and-leverage-in-the-middle-east-224080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Stengel, Richard (20 May 2022). (https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/) "Putin May Be Winning the Information War Outside of the U.S. and Europe" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)) (Time (magazine)) TIME  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220818141722/https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/) Archived from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2023 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TIME&rft.atitle=Putin+May+Be+Winning+the+Information+War+Outside+of+the+U.S.+and+Europe&rft.date=2022-05-20&rft.aulast=Stengel&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftime.com%2F6179221%2Fputin-information-war-column%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.eiu.com/n/russia-can-count-on-support-from-many-developing-countries/) "Russia can count on support from many developing countries" . eiu.com . Economist Intelligence Unit. 30 March 2022. (https://web.archive.org/web/20240714102133/https://www.eiu.com/n/russia-can-count-on-support-from-many-developing-countries/) Archived from the original on 14 July 2024. Retrieved 28 July 2024 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=eiu.com&rft.atitle=Russia+can+count+on+support+from+many+developing+countries&rft.date=2022-03-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eiu.com%2Fn%2Frussia-can-count-on-support-from-many-developing-countries%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Inwood, Joe; Tacchi, Jake (20 February 2024). (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68322230) "Wagner in Africa: How the Russian mercenary group has rebranded" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC) (BBC) BBC  . Retrieved 6 January 2026 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Wagner+in+Africa%3A+How+the+Russian+mercenary+group+has+rebranded&rft.date=2024-02-20&rft.aulast=Inwood&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft.au=Tacchi%2C+Jake&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-68322230&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45035889) "Russia in Africa: What's behind Moscow's push into the continent?" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC) (BBC) BBC  . 7 May 2020. (https://web.archive.org/web/20220413235807/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45035889) Archived from the original on 13 April 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=Russia+in+Africa%3A+What%27s+behind+Moscow%27s+push+into+the+continent%3F&rft.date=2020-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-45035889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Giustozzi, Dr Antonio (31 May 2024). (https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/how-wagner-group-lost-syria) "How the Wagner Group Lost Syria" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_United_Services_Institute) (Royal United Services Institute) Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) . London. Retrieved 6 January 2026 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=RUSI+Journal&rft.atitle=Military+Production+in+Russia+Before+and+After+the+Start+of+the+War+With+Ukraine&rft.volume=169&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=10-29&rft.date=2024-08-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03071847.2024.2392990&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F03071847.2024.2392990&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Snegovaya, Maria; Bergmann, Max; Dolbaia, Tina; Fenton, Nicholas; Bendett, Samuel (22 April 2024). (https://www.csis.org/analysis/back-stock-state-russias-defense-industry-after-two-years-war) "Back in Stock? The State of Russia's Defense Industry after Two Years of the War" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studies) (Center for Strategic and International Studies) Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) . Washington, D.C. 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Retrieved 3 August 2024 . ...and the countries of the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe, of which several, including Russia and the Czech Republic, are heavily industrialized.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Reference&rft.atitle=Industrial+countries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803100002206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   Curtis 1998 , pp. 295–382, The Economy.  ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Rutland, Peter (2013). "Neoliberalism and the Russian Transition". Review of International Political Economy . 20 (2). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_&_Francis) (Taylor & Francis) Taylor & Francis : 332– 362. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09692290.2012.727844) 10.1080/09692290.2012.727844 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Arable+land+%28%25+of+land+area%29+%E2%80%93+Russian+Federation&rft.pub=World+Bank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.worldbank.org%2Findicator%2FAG.LND.ARBL.ZS%3Flocations%3DRU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/system-shock-russias-war-and-global-food-energy-and-mineral-supply-chains) "System Shock: Russia's War and Global Food, Energy, and Mineral Supply Chains" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars) (Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars) Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars  . Washington, D.C. 13 April 2022. (https://web.archive.org/web/20220628222413/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/system-shock-russias-war-and-global-food-energy-and-mineral-supply-chains) Archived from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2022 . Together, Russia and Ukraine—sometimes referred to as the breadbasket of Europe—account for 29% of global wheat exports, 80% of the world's sunflower oil, and 40% of its barley.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Woodrow+Wilson+International+Center+for+Scholars&rft.atitle=System+Shock%3A+Russia%27s+War+and+Global+Food%2C+Energy%2C+and+Mineral+Supply+Chains&rft.date=2022-04-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wilsoncenter.org%2Fevent%2Fsystem-shock-russias-war-and-global-food-energy-and-mineral-supply-chains&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2  3   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy) "Russia – Economy" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica) (Encyclopædia Britannica) Encyclopædia Britannica  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220412055856/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy) Archived from the original on 12 April 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russia+%E2%80%93+Economy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FRussia%2FEconomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf) "The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict" (PDF) . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome) (Rome) Rome : (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization) (Food and Agriculture Organization) Food and Agriculture Organization . 25 March 2022. (https://web.archive.org/web/20230508073130/https://www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf) Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 May 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+importance+of+Ukraine+and+the+Russian+Federation+for+global+agricultural+markets+and+the+risks+associated+with+the+current+conflict&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Food+and+Agriculture+Organization&rft.date=2022-03-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fcb9236en%2Fcb9236en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Lustgarten, Abrahm (16 December 2020). (Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required) (https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia-climate-migration-crisis.html) "How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis"  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times) (The New York Times) The New York Times  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220414034549/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia-climate-migration-crisis.html) Archived from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 15 June 2021 . Across Eastern Russia, wild forests, swamps and grasslands are slowly being transformed into orderly grids of soybeans, corn and wheat. It's a process that is likely to accelerate: Russia hopes to seize on the warming temperatures and longer growing seasons brought by climate change to refashion itself as one of the planet's largest producers of food  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Russia+Wins+the+Climate+Crisis&rft.date=2020-12-16&rft.aulast=Lustgarten&rft.aufirst=Abrahm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2020%2F12%2F16%2Fmagazine%2Frussia-climate-migration-crisis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/i9540en.pdf) The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture  (PDF) . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+State+of+World+Fisheries+and+Aquaculture&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Food+and+Agriculture+Organization&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-92-5-130562-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fi9540en%2Fi9540en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20170114013730/https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm) "Gross domestic spending on R&D" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OECD) (OECD) OECD Data . 2017. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1787%2Fd8b068b4-en) 10.1787/d8b068b4-en . Archived from (Paid subscription required) (https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm) the original  on 14 January 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=OECD+Data&rft.atitle=Gross+domestic+spending+on+R%26D&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1787%2Fd8b068b4-en&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.oecd.org%2Frd%2Fgross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?year=2020) "SJR – International Science Ranking" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCImago_Journal_Rank) (SCImago Journal Rank) SCImago Journal Rank . 2020. (https://web.archive.org/web/20230607031448/https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?year=2020) Archived from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SJR+%E2%80%93+International+Science+Ranking&rft.pub=SCImago+Journal+Rank&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scimagojr.com%2Fcountryrank.php%3Fyear%3D2020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://tass.ru/info/7308739) Кто из российских и советских ученых и литераторов становился лауреатом Нобелевской премии  [ Which of the Russian and Soviet scientists and writers became the Nobel Prize laureate] . Tacc ТАСС (in Russian). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TASS) (TASS) TASS . 10 December 2019. (https://web.archive.org/web/20201116173301/https://tass.ru/info/7308739) Archived from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tacc&rft.atitle=%D0%9A%D1%82%D0%BE+%D0%B8%D0%B7+%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D0%B8+%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85+%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85+%D0%B8+%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2+%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%81%D1%8F+%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC+%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B8&rft.date=2019-12-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftass.ru%2Finfo%2F7308739&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru))  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/russian-federation) "GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025" . WIPO . 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(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)) (Bibcode (identifier)) Bibcode :(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1971JAtS...28..263A) 1971JAtS...28..263A . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(Freely accessible) (https://doi.org/10.1175%2F1520-0469%281971%29028%3C0263%3ASLOVOT%3E2.0.CO%3B2) 10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028< 0263:SLOVOT> 2.0.CO; 2  . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Getting+to+the+Top+In+the+Caucasus&rft.date=1989-08-27&rft.aulast=Tomb&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1989%2F08%2F27%2Ftravel%2Fgetting-to-the-top-in-the-caucasus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20150112082549/http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf) "Tourism Highlights 2014" (PDF) . UNWTO (World Tourism Organization). 2014. Archived from (http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf) the original (PDF) on 12 January 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2015 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tourism+Highlights+2014&rft.pub=UNWTO+%28World+Tourism+Organization%29&rft.date=2014&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.e-unwto.org%2Fcontent%2Fr13521%2Ffulltext.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Vlasov, Artem (17 December 2018). (https://iz.ru/824446/2018-12-17/nazvany-samye-populiarnye-dostoprimechatelnosti-rossii) Названы самые популярные достопримечательности России  [ The most popular sights of Russia are named] . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Izvestia) (Izvestia) Izvestia  (in Russian). (https://web.archive.org/web/20181217185705/https://iz.ru/824446/2018-12-17/nazvany-samye-populiarnye-dostoprimechatelnosti-rossii) Archived from the original on 17 December 2018. Retrieved 15 December 2020 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Izvestia&rft.atitle=%D0%9D%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B+%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8&rft.date=2018-12-17&rft.aulast=Vlasov&rft.aufirst=Artem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiz.ru%2F824446%2F2018-12-17%2Fnazvany-samye-populiarnye-dostoprimechatelnosti-rossii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru))  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Sullivan, Paul (7 March 2021). (Paid subscription required) (https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow-travel-guide/) "48 hours in... Moscow, an insider guide to Russia's mighty metropolis"  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph) (The Daily Telegraph) The Daily Telegraph  . (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow-travel-guide/) Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=48+hours+in...+Moscow%2C+an+insider+guide+to+Russia%27s+mighty+metropolis&rft.date=2021-03-07&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Ftravel%2Fdestinations%2Feurope%2Frussia%2Fmoscow%2Farticles%2Fmoscow-travel-guide%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)     ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Hammer, Joshua (3 June 2011). (Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required) (https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/05/travel/russias-white-nights-in-st-petersburg.html) "White Nights of St. Petersburg, Russia"  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times) (The New York Times) The New York Times  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051659/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/05/travel/russias-white-nights-in-st-petersburg.html) Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=White+Nights+of+St.+Petersburg%2C+Russia&rft.date=2011-06-03&rft.aulast=Hammer&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2011%2F06%2F05%2Ftravel%2Frussias-white-nights-in-st-petersburg.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545/) "Kremlin and Red Square, Moscow" . UNESCO World Heritage Centre . (https://web.archive.org/web/20211109165341/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545/) Archived from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=Kremlin+and+Red+Square%2C+Moscow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Flist%2F545%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Russian Federal State Statistics Service. (https://rosstat.gov.ru/vpn/2020/Tom1_Chislennost_i_razmeshchenie_naseleniya) Всероссийская перепись населения 2020 года. Том 1  [ 2020 All-Russian Population Census, vol. 1] (XLS) (in Russian). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_State_Statistics_Service_(Russia)) (Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)) Federal State Statistics Service . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+2020+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0.+%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC+1&rft.pub=Federal+State+Statistics+Service&rft.au=Russian+Federal+State+Statistics+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frosstat.gov.ru%2Fvpn%2F2020%2FTom1_Chislennost_i_razmeshchenie_naseleniya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru))  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    ↑   146,028,325 inhabitants / 17,098,246 km2 = 8.5 inhabitants per km2   ↑   Curtis 1998 , pp. 153–166, Population.  ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.vedomosti.ru/society/articles/2026/01/23/1171174-summarnii-koeffitsient-rozhdaemosti-prodolzhil-snizhatsya) "Росстат: Суммарный коэффициент рождаемости продолжил снижаться в 2025 году" . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%3A+%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%8D%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82+%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%BB+%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%81%D1%8F+%D0%B2+2025+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%83&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vedomosti.ru%2Fsociety%2Farticles%2F2026%2F01%2F23%2F1171174-summarnii-koeffitsient-rozhdaemosti-prodolzhil-snizhatsya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51120165) "Russia's Putin seeks to stimulate birth rate" . BBC. 15 January 2020. (https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051659/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51120165) Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+Putin+seeks+to+stimulate+birth+rate&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2020-01-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-europe-51120165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Koehn, Jodi (7 July 2011). (https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/russias-demographic-crisis) "Russia's Demographic Crisis" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennan_Institute) (Kennan Institute) Kennan Institute  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars) (Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars) Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars . (https://web.archive.org/web/20170705223345/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/russias-demographic-crisis) Archived from the original on 5 July 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Kennan+Institute&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+Demographic+Crisis&rft.date=2011-07-07&rft.aulast=Koehn&rft.aufirst=Jodi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wilsoncenter.org%2Fpublication%2Frussias-demographic-crisis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Foltynova, Kristyna (19 June 2020). (https://www.rferl.org/a/migrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-/30677952.html) "Migrants Welcome: Is Russia Trying To Solve Its Demographic Crisis By Attracting Foreigners?" . Radio Liberty. (https://web.archive.org/web/20200620034801/https://www.rferl.org/a/migrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-/30677952.html) Archived from the original on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 9 July 2021 . Russia has been trying to boost fertility rates and reduce death rates for several years now. Special programs for families have been implemented, anti-tobacco campaigns have been organised, and raising the legal age to buy alcohol was considered. However, perhaps the most successful strategy so far has been attracting migrants, whose arrival helps Russia to compensate population losses.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Migrants+Welcome%3A+Is+Russia+Trying+To+Solve+Its+Demographic+Crisis+By+Attracting+Foreigners%3F&rft.pub=Radio+Liberty&rft.date=2020-06-19&rft.aulast=Foltynova&rft.aufirst=Kristyna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Fmigrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-%2F30677952.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Saver, Pjotr (13 October 2021). (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/13/russias-population-undergoes-largest-ever-peacetime-decline) "Russia's population undergoes largest ever peacetime decline, analysis shows" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian) (The Guardian) The Guardian  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20211013112949/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/13/russias-population-undergoes-largest-ever-peacetime-decline) Archived from the original on 13 October 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2021 . Russia's natural population has undergone its largest peacetime decline in recorded history over the last 12 months...  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+population+undergoes+largest+ever+peacetime+decline%2C+analysis+shows&rft.date=2021-10-13&rft.aulast=Saver&rft.aufirst=Pjotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2021%2Foct%2F13%2Frussias-population-undergoes-largest-ever-peacetime-decline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Goble, Paul (18 August 2022). (https://jamestown.org/program/russias-demographic-collapse-is-accelerating/) "Russia's Demographic Collapse Is Accelerating" . Eurasia Daily Monitor . 19 (127). Washington, D.C.: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamestown_Foundation) (Jamestown Foundation) Jamestown Foundation . (https://web.archive.org/web/20231021105942/https://jamestown.org/program/russias-demographic-collapse-is-accelerating/) Archived from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 6 October 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eurasia+Daily+Monitor&rft.atitle=Russia%27s+Demographic+Collapse+Is+Accelerating&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=127&rft.date=2022-08-18&rft.aulast=Goble&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjamestown.org%2Fprogram%2Frussias-demographic-collapse-is-accelerating%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Sauer, Pjotr (22 October 2024). (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/oct/22/high-russian-death-toll-fails-shift-opinion-ukraine-war) " 'End justifies the means': high Russian death toll fails to shift opinion on Ukraine war" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian) (The Guardian) The Guardian  . Retrieved 8 March 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=%27End+justifies+the+means%27%3A+high+Russian+death+toll+fails+to+shift+opinion+on+Ukraine+war&rft.date=2024-10-22&rft.aulast=Sauer&rft.aufirst=Pjotr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2024%2Foct%2F22%2Fhigh-russian-death-toll-fails-shift-opinion-ukraine-war&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Cocco, Federica; Ivanonva, Polina (4 April 2022). (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/8c576a9c-ba65-4fb1-967a-fc4fa5457c62) "Ukraine war threatens to deepen Russia's demographic crisis" . Financial Times . London. Archived from (Paid subscription required) (https://www.ft.com/content/8c576a9c-ba65-4fb1-967a-fc4fa5457c62) the original  on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Financial+Times&rft.atitle=Ukraine+war+threatens+to+deepen+Russia%27s+demographic+crisis&rft.date=2022-04-04&rft.aulast=Cocco&rft.aufirst=Federica&rft.au=Ivanonva%2C+Polina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcontent%2F8c576a9c-ba65-4fb1-967a-fc4fa5457c62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   Curtis 1998 , pp. 172–201, Ethnic Composition.  ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_etn_10.php) "EAll- Russian population census 2010 – Population by nationality, sex and subjects of the Russian Federation" . Demoscope Weekly . 2010. (https://web.archive.org/web/20210812053430/http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_etn_10.php) Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Demoscope+Weekly&rft.atitle=EAll-+Russian+population+census+2010+%E2%80%93+Population+by+nationality%2C+sex+and+subjects+of+the+Russian+Federation&rft.date=2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.demoscope.ru%2Fweekly%2Fssp%2Frus_etn_10.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38597) "Russia – The Indo-European Group" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica) (Encyclopædia Britannica) Encyclopædia Britannica  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20201112023228/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38597) Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 18 July 2021 . East Slavs—mainly Russians but including some Ukrainians and Belarusians—constitute more than four-fifths of the total population and are prevalent throughout the country.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russia+%E2%80%93+The+Indo-European+Group&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FRussia%2FMixed-and-deciduous-forest%23ref38597&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kowalev, Viktor; Neznaika, Pavel (2000). "Power and Ethnicity in the Finno-Ugric Republics of the Russian Federation: The Examples of Komi, Mordovia, and Udmurtia". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Journal_of_Political_Economy) (International Journal of Political Economy) International Journal of Political Economy  . 30 (3). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_&_Francis) (Taylor & Francis) Taylor & Francis : 81– 100. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08911916.2000.11644017) 10.1080/08911916.2000.11644017 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41103741) 41103741 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Political+Economy&rft.atitle=Power+and+Ethnicity+in+the+Finno-Ugric+Republics+of+the+Russian+Federation%3A+The+Examples+of+Komi%2C+Mordovia%2C+and+Udmurtia&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=81-100&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F08911916.2000.11644017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41103741%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kowalev&rft.aufirst=Viktor&rft.au=Neznaika%2C+Pavel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Bartlett, Roger (July 1995). "The Russian Germans and Their Neighbours". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Slavonic_and_East_European_Review) (The Slavonic and East European Review) The Slavonic and East European Review  . 73 (3). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Humanities_Research_Association) (Modern Humanities Research Association) Modern Humanities Research Association : 499– 504. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4211864) 4211864 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=The+Russian+Germans+and+Their+Neighbours&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=499-504&rft.date=1995-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4211864%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bartlett&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationStock2019_TenKeyFindings.pdf) "International Migrant Stock 2019" (PDF) . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Economic_and_Social_Affairs) (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs) United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations) (United Nations) United Nations . September 2019. (https://web.archive.org/web/20250307164201/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationStock2019_TenKeyFindings.pdf) Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 March 2025. Retrieved 12 March 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Department+of+Economic+and+Social+Affairs&rft.atitle=International+Migrant+Stock+2019&rft.date=2019-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fdevelopment%2Fdesa%2Fpopulation%2Fmigration%2Fpublications%2Fmigrationreport%2Fdocs%2FMigrationStock2019_TenKeyFindings.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://seeecadata.iom.int/msite/seeecadata/country/russian-federation) "Russian Federation" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Migration) (International Organization for Migration) International Organization for Migration  . Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved 12 March 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Organization+for+Migration&rft.atitle=Russian+Federation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fseeecadata.iom.int%2Fmsite%2Fseeecadata%2Fcountry%2Frussian-federation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Сhisl_MO_01-01-2025.xlsx) "Численность постоянного населения Российской Федерации по муниципальным образованиям на 1 января 2025 года" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_State_Statistics_Service_(Russia)) (Federal State Statistics Service (Russia)) Federal State Statistics Service . Retrieved 27 April 2025 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8+%D0%BF%D0%BE+%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BC+%D0%BD%D0%B0+1+%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F+2025+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0&rft.pub=Federal+State+Statistics+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frosstat.gov.ru%2Fstorage%2Fmediabank%2F%D0%A1hisl_MO_01-01-2025.xlsx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Lazarev, Vladimir; Pravikova, Ludmila (2005). (http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/103ISB4.PDF) "The North Caucasus Bilingualism and Language Identity" (PDF) . In Cohen, James; McAlister, Kara T.; Rolstad, Kellie; MacSwan, Jeff (eds.). ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism . Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press. p. 1325. (https://web.archive.org/web/20220120213143/http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/103ISB4.PDF) Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2022 . The North Caucasus, inhabited by more than 100 of autochthonous and allochthonous peoples, including Russians, is a unique locus for conducting a large-scale research in the area of bilingualism and multilingualism.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+North+Caucasus+Bilingualism+and+Language+Identity&rft.btitle=ISB4%3A+Proceedings+of+the+4th+International+Symposium+on+Bilingualism&rft.place=Somerville%2C+MA&rft.pages=1325&rft.pub=Cascadilla+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Lazarev&rft.aufirst=Vladimir&rft.au=Pravikova%2C+Ludmila&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lingref.com%2Fisb%2F4%2F103ISB4.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://learn.utoronto.ca/programs-courses/languages-and-translation/language-learning/russian) "Russian" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toronto) (University of Toronto) University of Toronto . (https://web.archive.org/web/20190628022427/https://learn.utoronto.ca/programs-courses/languages-and-translation/language-learning/russian) Archived from the original on 28 June 2019. Retrieved 9 July 2021 . Russian is the most widespread of the Slavic languages and the largest native language in Europe. Of great political importance, it is one of the official languages of the United Nations – making it a natural area of study for those interested in geopolitics.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russian&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flearn.utoronto.ca%2Fprograms-courses%2Flanguages-and-translation%2Flanguage-learning%2Frussian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koichi_Wakata) (Koichi Wakata) Wakata, Koichi . (https://global.jaxa.jp/article/special/expedition/wakata01_e.html) "My Long Mission in Space" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JAXA) (JAXA) JAXA . (https://web.archive.org/web/20140426232353/https://global.jaxa.jp/article/special/expedition/wakata01_e.html) Archived from the original on 26 April 2014. Retrieved 18 July 2021 . The official languages on the ISS are English and Russian...  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=My+Long+Mission+in+Space&rft.pub=JAXA&rft.aulast=Wakata&rft.aufirst=Koichi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.jaxa.jp%2Farticle%2Fspecial%2Fexpedition%2Fwakata01_e.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Iryna, Ulasiuk (2011). "Legal protection of linguistic diversity in Russia: past and present". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Multilingual_and_Multicultural_Development) (Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development) Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development  . 32 (1). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_University_Institute) (European University Institute) European University Institute : 71– 83. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01434632.2010.536237) 10.1080/01434632.2010.536237 . Russia is unique in its size and ethnic composition. There is a further linguistic complexity of more than 150 co-existing languages.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Multilingual+and+Multicultural+Development&rft.atitle=Legal+protection+of+linguistic+diversity+in+Russia%3A+past+and+present&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71-83&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F01434632.2010.536237&rft.aulast=Iryna&rft.aufirst=Ulasiuk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595) "Russia – Ethnic groups and languages" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica) (Encyclopædia Britannica) Encyclopædia Britannica  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20201112023228/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595) Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 8 November 2020 . Although ethnic Russians comprise more than four-fifths of the country's total population, Russia is a diverse, multiethnic society. More than 120 ethnic groups, many with their own national territories, speaking some 100 languages live within Russia's borders.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russia+%E2%80%93+Ethnic+groups+and+languages&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FRussia%2FMixed-and-deciduous-forest%23ref38595&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20220307194352/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm) Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года  [ All-Russian population census 2010] . Том 4. Национальный состав и владение языками, гражданство (in Russian). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosstat) (Rosstat) Rosstat . Archived from (http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm) the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 24 August 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC+4.+%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9+%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2+%D0%B8+%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%2C+%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE&rft.atitle=%D0%92%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+2010+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gks.ru%2Ffree_doc%2Fnew_site%2Fperepis2010%2Fcroc%2Fperepis_itogi1612.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_uses_Russian-language_script_(ru))  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm) "Chapter 3. The Federal Structure" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Russia) (Constitution of Russia) Constitution of Russia . (https://web.archive.org/web/20181225132251/http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm) Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 27 December 2007 . 2. The Republics shall have the right to establish their own state languages. In the bodies of state authority and local self-government, state institutions of the Republics they shall be used together with the state language of the Russian Federation. 3. The Russian Federation shall guarantee to all of its peoples the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+3.+The+Federal+Structure&rft.pub=Constitution+of+Russia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.ru%2Fen%2F10003000-04.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Jankiewicz, Szymon; Knyaginina, Nadezhda; Prina, Federic (13 March 2020). "Linguistic rights and education in the republics of the Russian Federation: towards unity through uniformity". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Review_of_Central_and_East_European_Law) (Review of Central and East European Law) Review of Central and East European Law  . 45 (1): 59– 91. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15730352-bja10003) 10.1163/15730352-bja10003 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Central+and+East+European+Law&rft.atitle=Linguistic+rights+and+education+in+the+republics+of+the+Russian+Federation%3A+towards+unity+through+uniformity&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=59-91&rft.date=2020-03-13&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15730352-bja10003&rft.aulast=Jankiewicz&rft.aufirst=Szymon&rft.au=Knyaginina%2C+Nadezhda&rft.au=Prina%2C+Federic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Bondarenko, Dmitry V.; Nasonkin, Vladimir V.; Shagieva, Rozalina V.; Kiyanova, Olga N.; Barabanova, Svetlana V. (2018). (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174607/https://mjltm.org/article-1-146-en.pdf) "Linguistic Diversity In Russia Is A Threat To Sovereignty Or A Condition Of Cohesion?" (PDF) . Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods . 8 (5): 166– 182. Archived from (https://mjltm.org/article-1-146-en.pdf) the original (PDF) on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Journal+of+Language+Teaching+Methods&rft.atitle=Linguistic+Diversity+In+Russia+Is+A+Threat+To+Sovereignty+Or+A+Condition+Of+Cohesion%3F&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=166-182&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Bondarenko&rft.aufirst=Dmitry+V.&rft.au=Nasonkin%2C+Vladimir+V.&rft.au=Shagieva%2C+Rozalina+V.&rft.au=Kiyanova%2C+Olga+N.&rft.au=Barabanova%2C+Svetlana+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmjltm.org%2Farticle-1-146-en.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2  3   Curtis 1998 , pp. 202–220, Religion.  1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/russia/) "Russia" . United States Department of State . Retrieved 19 July 2024 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+States+Department+of+State&rft.atitle=Russia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.state.gov%2Freports%2F2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom%2Frussia%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2  3  4  5   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20190508195328/https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/0/?*=rvAv5PGTc%2Fw%2BBFV6QOUZtaf5gYF7InVybCI6InlhLWRpc2stcHVibGljOi8vMWV1aDl5RDFpcnZKeVZNNSswWWFaZktqRFhoOXZDNWhldUlGTU5uQU4zQT0iLCJ0aXRsZSI6IlNyZWRhX2Jsb2tfcHJlc3Nfc20yLnBkZiIsInVpZCI6IjAiLCJub2lmcmFtZSI6ZmFsc2UsInRzIjoxNTI0NDg3NTUzMTcwfQ%3D%3D&page=1) "Арена: Атлас религий и национальностей" [ Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities] . Среда (Sreda). 2012. Archived from (https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/0/?*=rvAv5PGTc%2Fw%2BBFV6QOUZtaf5gYF7InVybCI6InlhLWRpc2stcHVibGljOi8vMWV1aDl5RDFpcnZKeVZNNSswWWFaZktqRFhoOXZDNWhldUlGTU5uQU4zQT0iLCJ0aXRsZSI6IlNyZWRhX2Jsb2tfcHJlc3Nfc20yLnBkZiIsInVpZCI6IjAiLCJub2lmcmFtZSI6ZmFsc2UsInRzIjoxNTI0NDg3NTUzMTcwfQ%3D%3D&page=1) the original (PDF) on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 1 August 2019 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0%3A+%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9&rft.pub=%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0+%28Sreda%29&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocviewer.yandex.com%2Fview%2F0%2F%3F%2A%3DrvAv5PGTc%252Fw%252BBFV6QOUZtaf5gYF7InVybCI6InlhLWRpc2stcHVibGljOi8vMWV1aDl5RDFpcnZKeVZNNSswWWFaZktqRFhoOXZDNWhldUlGTU5uQU4zQT0iLCJ0aXRsZSI6IlNyZWRhX2Jsb2tfcHJlc3Nfc20yLnBkZiIsInVpZCI6IjAiLCJub2lmcmFtZSI6ZmFsc2UsInRzIjoxNTI0NDg3NTUzMTcwfQ%253D%253D%26page%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  See also the results' (http://sreda.org/arena) main interactive mapping (https://web.archive.org/web/20121012064011/http://sreda.org/arena) Archived 12 October 2012 at the  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine) (Wayback Machine) Wayback Machine (./Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links)   and the static mappings: (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20170421154615/http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg) "Religions in Russia by federal subject" (Map). Ogonek . 34 (5243). 27 August 2012. Archived from (http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg) the original on 21 April 2017. (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ogonek&rft.atitle=Religions+in+Russia+by+federal+subject&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=5243&rft.date=2012-08-27&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fc2.kommersant.ru%2FISSUES.PHOTO%2FOGONIOK%2F2012%2F034%2Fogcyhjk2.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  The Sreda Arena Atlas was realised in cooperation with the (http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=census) All-Russia Population Census 2010 (Всероссийской переписи населения 2010) (https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141924/http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=census) Archived 12 June 2018 at the  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine) (Wayback Machine) Wayback Machine (./Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links)  , the (http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=minust) Russian Ministry of Justice (Минюста РФ) (https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163615/http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=minust) Archived 12 June 2018 at the  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine) (Wayback Machine) Wayback Machine (./Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links)  , the Public Opinion Foundation (Фонда Общественного Мнения) and presented among others by the Analytical Department of the Synodal Information Department of the Russian Orthodox Church. See: (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20210224141716/http://russ.ru/Mirovaya-povestka/Proekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej) "Проект АРЕНА: Атлас религий и национальностей" [ Project ARENA: Atlas of religions and nationalities] . Russian Journal . 10 December 2012. Archived from (http://russ.ru/Mirovaya-povestka/Proekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej) the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 1 August 2019 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Russian+Journal&rft.atitle=%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82+%D0%90%D0%A0%D0%95%D0%9D%D0%90%3A+%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9&rft.date=2012-12-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fruss.ru%2FMirovaya-povestka%2FProekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Bourdeaux, Michael (2003). (https://books.google.com/books?id=EPP3ti4hysUC&pg=PA46) "Trends in Religious Policy" . Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia . Taylor and Francis. pp. 46–52 [47]. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-137-7) (Special:BookSources/978-1-85743-137-7) 978-1-85743-137-7  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Trends+in+Religious+Policy&rft.btitle=Eastern+Europe%2C+Russia+and+Central+Asia&rft.pages=46-52+47&rft.pub=Taylor+and+Francis&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-85743-137-7&rft.aulast=Bourdeaux&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEPP3ti4hysUC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Fagan, Geraldine (2013). Believing in Russia: Religious Policy After Communism . Routledge. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-49002-3) (Special:BookSources/978-0-415-49002-3) 978-0-415-49002-3  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Believing+in+Russia%3A+Religious+Policy+After+Communism&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-415-49002-3&rft.aulast=Fagan&rft.aufirst=Geraldine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  p. 127.  ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Beskov, Andrey (2020). (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349573805) "Этнорелигиозное измерение современной русской идентичности: православие vs неоязычество" [ Ethno-Religious Dimension of Modern Russian Identity: Orthodoxy vs Neo-Paganism] . Studia Culturae (in Russian). 3 (45). Saint Petersburg: ANO DPO: 106– 122. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)) (ISSN (identifier)) ISSN  (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2310-1245) 2310-1245 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Culturae&rft.atitle=%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5+%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%3A+%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B5+vs+%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=45&rft.pages=106-122&rft.date=2020&rft.issn=2310-1245&rft.aulast=Beskov&rft.aufirst=Andrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F349573805&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Foltz) (Richard Foltz) Foltz, Richard (2019). "Scythian Neo-Paganism in the Caucasus: The Ossetian Uatsdin as a 'Nature Religion' ". Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature, and Culture . 13 (3): 314– 332. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1558%2Fjsrnc.39114) 10.1558/jsrnc.39114 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+Study+of+Religion%2C+Nature%2C+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Scythian+Neo-Paganism+in+the+Caucasus%3A+The+Ossetian+Uatsdin+as+a+%27Nature+Religion%27&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=314-332&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1558%2Fjsrnc.39114&rft.aulast=Foltz&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Andreeva, Julia Olegovna (2012). 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"Neo-Hindu Movements and Orthodox Christianity in Post-Communist Russia". India International Centre Quarterly . 21 (2/3): 151– 162. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/23003642) 23003642 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=India+International+Centre+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Neo-Hindu+Movements+and+Orthodox+Christianity+in+Post-Communist+Russia&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2%2F3&rft.pages=151-162&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23003642%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Tkatcheva&rft.aufirst=Anna&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kharitonova, Valentina (2015). (https://doi.org/10.7592%2FFEJF2015.62.kharitonova) "Revived Shamanism in the Social Life of Russia" . Folklore . 62 : 37– 54. 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Systematic description of experiences ] (in Russian). Vol. 4. Moscow: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keston_Institute) (Keston Institute) Keston Institute ; Logos. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/5-98704-057-4) (Special:BookSources/5-98704-057-4) 5-98704-057-4  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F+%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8C+%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B8.+%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%8B%D1%82+%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE+%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.place=Moscow&rft.pub=Keston+Institute%3B+Logos&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=5-98704-057-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:CS1_Russian-language_sources_(ru))    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Menzel, Brigit; Hagemeister, Michael; Glatzer Rosenthal, Bernice, eds. (2012). (https://web.archive.org/web/20210903042320/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf) The New Age of Russia: Occult and Esoteric Dimensions  (PDF) . Kubon & Sagner. 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(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOVA_Center) (SOVA Center) SOVA Center . Archived from (https://www.sova-center.ru/en/religion/publications/2021/04/d44133/) the original on 9 February 2022. (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freedom+of+Conscience+in+Russia%3A+Restrictions+and+Challenges+in+2020&rft.pub=SOVA+Center&rft.date=2021-04-29&rft.aulast=Sibireva&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sova-center.ru%2Fen%2Freligion%2Fpublications%2F2021%2F04%2Fd44133%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Knox, Zoe (2019). "Jehovah's Witnesses as Extremists: The Russian State, Religious Pluralism, and Human Rights". The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review . 46 (2): 128– 157. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1163%2F18763324-04602003) 10.1163/18763324-04602003 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)) (Hdl (identifier)) hdl :(Freely accessible) (https://hdl.handle.net/2381%2F43756) 2381/43756  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Soviet+and+Post-Soviet+Review&rft.atitle=Jehovah%27s+Witnesses+as+Extremists%3A+The+Russian+State%2C+Religious+Pluralism%2C+and+Human+Rights&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=128-157&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2381%2F43756&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F18763324-04602003&rft.aulast=Knox&rft.aufirst=Zoe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/lomonosov-moscow-state-university) "Lomonosov Moscow State University" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QS_World_University_Rankings) (QS World University Rankings) QS World University Rankings  . Retrieved 28 June 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=QS+World+University+Rankings&rft.atitle=Lomonosov+Moscow+State+University&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.topuniversities.com%2Funiversities%2Flomonosov-moscow-state-university&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=RU) "Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) – Russian Federation" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank) (World Bank) World Bank . (https://web.archive.org/web/20201112025746/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=RU) Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 21 January 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Literacy+rate%2C+adult+total+%28%25+of+people+ages+15+and+above%29+%E2%80%93+Russian+Federation&rft.pub=World+Bank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdata.worldbank.org%2Findicator%2FSE.ADT.LITR.ZS%3Flocations%3DRU&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2  3   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20210726203317/https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-russia.pdf) "Education system Russia" (PDF) . 3. The Hague: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuffic) (Nuffic) Nuffic . October 2019. Archived from (https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-russia.pdf) the original (PDF) on 26 July 2021. Retrieved 26 July 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Education+system+Russia&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.series=3&rft.pub=Nuffic&rft.date=2019-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nuffic.nl%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2020-08%2Feducation-system-russia.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Kouptsov, Oleg (1997). (https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000129839) Mutual recognition of qualifications: the Russian Federation and the other European countries  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bucharest) (Bucharest) Bucharest : (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO-CEPES) (UNESCO-CEPES) UNESCO-CEPES . p. 25. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/929-0-69146-8) (Special:BookSources/929-0-69146-8) 929-0-69146-8  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174930/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000129839) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mutual+recognition+of+qualifications%3A+the+Russian+Federation+and+the+other+European+countries&rft.place=Bucharest&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=UNESCO-CEPES&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=929-0-69146-8&rft.aulast=Kouptsov&rft.aufirst=Oleg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000129839&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.CUAT.BA.ZS?locations=RU) "Educational attainment, at least Bachelor's or equivalent, population 25+, total (%) (cumulative) - Russian Federation" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank) (World Bank) World Bank . Retrieved 21 October 2025 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+childhood+care+and+education+in+the+Russian+Federation&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Taratukhina&rft.aufirst=Maria+S.&rft.au=Polyakova%2C+Marina+N.&rft.au=Berezina%2C+Tatyana+A.&rft.au=Notkina%2C+Nina+A.&rft.au=Sheraizina%2C+Roza+M.&rft.au=Borovkov%2C+Mihail+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000149142_eng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Housing#ref38625) "Russia – Education" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica) (Encyclopædia Britannica) Encyclopædia Britannica  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174930/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Housing#ref38625) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2021 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Russian+Review&rft.atitle=Modern+Science+in+Russia&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=68-80&rft.date=1943&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F125254&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F125254%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ipatieff&rft.aufirst=V.N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ru) "Russian Federation" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO) (UNESCO) UNESCO World Heritage Centre . (https://web.archive.org/web/20170707173059/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ru/) Archived from the original on 7 July 2017. Retrieved 13 August 2021 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=DW+News&rft.atitle=Russia+marks+Cosmonautics+Day+%E2%80%93+in+pictures&rft.date=2020-04-12&rft.aulast=Dambach&rft.aufirst=Kai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.com%2Fen%2Frussia-marks-cosmonautics-day-in-pictures%2Fg-57175251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Leonov, Tatyana (5 April 2018). (https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2013/04/04/celebrate-russian-orthodox-easter) "Celebrate: Russian Orthodox Easter" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Broadcasting_Service) (Special Broadcasting Service) Special Broadcasting Service  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132621/https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2013/04/04/celebrate-russian-orthodox-easter) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 12 January 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Special+Broadcasting+Service&rft.atitle=Celebrate%3A+Russian+Orthodox+Easter&rft.date=2018-04-05&rft.aulast=Leonov&rft.aufirst=Tatyana&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbs.com.au%2Ffood%2Farticle%2F2013%2F04%2F04%2Fcelebrate-russian-orthodox-easter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Grover, Stuart R. (January 1973). "The World of Art Movement in Russia". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Russian_Review) (The Russian Review) The Russian Review  . 32 (1). Wiley: 28– 42. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.2307%2F128091) 10.2307/128091 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/128091) 128091 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Russian+Review&rft.atitle=The+World+of+Art+Movement+in+Russia&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=28-42&rft.date=1973-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F128091&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F128091%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Grover&rft.aufirst=Stuart+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Dianina, Katia (2018). "The Making of an Artist as National Hero: The Great Karl Briullov and His Critical Fortunes". Slavic Review . 77 : 122– 150. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fslr.2018.13) 10.1017/slr.2018.13 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slavic+Review&rft.atitle=The+Making+of+an+Artist+as+National+Hero%3A+The+Great+Karl+Briullov+and+His+Critical+Fortunes&rft.volume=77&rft.pages=122-150&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fslr.2018.13&rft.aulast=Dianina&rft.aufirst=Katia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Sibbald, Balb (5 February 2002). (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC99322) "If the soul is nourished ..." Canadian Medical Association Journal . 166 (3): 357– 358. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)) (PMC (identifier)) PMC  (Freely accessible) (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC99322) 99322  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Medical+Association+Journal&rft.atitle=If+the+soul+is+nourished+...&rft.volume=166&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=357-358&rft.date=2002-02-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC99322%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.aulast=Sibbald&rft.aufirst=Balb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC99322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Leek, Peter (2012). Russian Painting . Parkstone International. p. 178. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-780-42975-5) (Special:BookSources/978-1-780-42975-5) 978-1-780-42975-5  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Painting&rft.pages=178&rft.pub=Parkstone+International&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-780-42975-5&rft.aulast=Leek&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Valkenier, Elizabeth Kridl (1975). "The Peredvizhniki and the Spirit of the 1860s". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Russian_Review) (The Russian Review) The Russian Review  . 34 (3). Wiley: 247– 265. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.2307%2F127973) 10.2307/127973 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/127973) 127973 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Russian+Review&rft.atitle=The+Peredvizhniki+and+the+Spirit+of+the+1860s&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=247-265&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F127973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F127973%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Valkenier&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Kridl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Brunson, Molly (2016). Russian Realisms . Cornell University Press. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60909-199-6) (Special:BookSources/978-1-60909-199-6) 978-1-60909-199-6  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctv177td37) 10.7591/j.ctv177td37 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russian+Realisms&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7591%2Fj.ctv177td37%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-60909-199-6&rft.aulast=Brunson&rft.aufirst=Molly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Reeder, Roberta (July 1976). "Mikhail Vrubel': A Russian Interpretation of "fin de siècle" Art". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Slavonic_and_East_European_Review) (The Slavonic and East European Review) The Slavonic and East European Review  . 54 (3). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Humanities_Research_Association) (Modern Humanities Research Association) Modern Humanities Research Association : 323– 334. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4207296) 4207296 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=Mikhail+Vrubel%27%3A+A+Russian+Interpretation+of+%22fin+de+si%C3%A8cle%22+Art&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=323-334&rft.date=1976-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4207296%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Reeder&rft.aufirst=Roberta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Archer, Kenneth (1986). "Nicholas Roerich and His Theatrical Designs: A Research Survey". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_on_Research_in_Dance#Dance_Research_Journal) (Congress on Research in Dance) Dance Research Journal  . 18 (2). Dance Studies Association: 3– 6. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1478046) 10.2307/1478046 . 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A Global History of Architecture (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 544. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-40257-3) (Special:BookSources/978-0-470-40257-3) 978-0-470-40257-3  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Global+History+of+Architecture&rft.pages=544&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-470-40257-3&rft.aulast=Jarzombek&rft.aufirst=Mark+M.&rft.au=Prakash%2C+Vikramaditya&rft.au=Ching%2C+Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Lidov, Alexei (2005). (https://www.academia.edu/2694753) "The Canopy over the Holy Sepulchre. On the Origin of Onion-Shaped Domes" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academia.edu) (Academia.edu) Academia.edu  : 171– 180. 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Slavic+and+East+European+Review+%28Slavic+Review%29&rft.atitle=The+Historianism+of+Gogol&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=360-370&rft.date=1953-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2491790&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2491790%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Strakhovsky&rft.aufirst=Leonid+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Henry Chamberlin, William (1946). "Turgenev: The Eternal Romantic". (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Russian_Review) (The Russian Review) The Russian Review  . 5 (2). Wiley: 10– 23. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.2307%2F125154) 10.2307/125154 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/125154) 125154 . 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(https://web.archive.org/web/20220329091227/https://www.play.mdx.ac.uk/media/EISENSTEIN%2C+Sergei+-+BATTLESHIP+POTEMKIN+-+1925+Russia/1_sub9wj41) Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eisenstein%2C+Sergei+%E2%80%93+Battleship+Potemkin+%E2%80%93+1925+Russia&rft.pub=Middlesex+University&rft.date=2020-12-04&rft.aulast=Hodgson&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.play.mdx.ac.uk%2Fmedia%2FEISENSTEIN%252C%2BSergei%2B-%2BBATTLESHIP%2BPOTEMKIN%2B-%2B1925%2BRussia%2F1_sub9wj41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Brown, Mike (22 January 2018). (https://www.inverse.com/article/40392-sergei-eisenstein-google-doodle) "Sergei Eisenstein: How the "Father of Montage" Reinvented Cinema" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_(website)) (Inverse (website)) Inverse  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220331100137/https://www.inverse.com/article/40392-sergei-eisenstein-google-doodle) Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Inverse&rft.atitle=Sergei+Eisenstein%3A+How+the+%22Father+of+Montage%22+Reinvented+Cinema&rft.date=2018-01-22&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.inverse.com%2Farticle%2F40392-sergei-eisenstein-google-doodle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Gray, Carmen (27 October 2015). (https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-andrei-tarkovsky) "Where to begin with Andrei Tarkovsky" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Film_Institute) (British Film Institute) British Film Institute  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220331091343/https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-andrei-tarkovsky) Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2021 . He made only seven features, but Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky is widely regarded as one of cinema's true masters.  (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=British+Film+Institute&rft.atitle=Where+to+begin+with+Andrei+Tarkovsky&rft.date=2015-10-27&rft.aulast=Gray&rft.aufirst=Carmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bfi.org.uk%2Ffeatures%2Fwhere-begin-with-andrei-tarkovsky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.britannica.com/topic/All-Union-State-Institute-of-Cinematography) "All-Union State Institute of Cinematography" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica) (Encyclopædia Britannica) Encyclopædia Britannica  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220331092540/https://www.britannica.com/topic/All-Union-State-Institute-of-Cinematography) Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=All-Union+State+Institute+of+Cinematography&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FAll-Union-State-Institute-of-Cinematography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Teare, Kendall (12 August 2019). (https://news.yale.edu/2019/08/12/yale-film-scholar-dziga-vertov-enigma-movie-camera) "Yale film scholar on Dziga Vertov, the enigma with a movie camera" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University) (Yale University) Yale University  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220419004549/https://news.yale.edu/2019/08/12/yale-film-scholar-dziga-vertov-enigma-movie-camera) Archived from the original on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yale+University&rft.atitle=Yale+film+scholar+on+Dziga+Vertov%2C+the+enigma+with+a+movie+camera&rft.date=2019-08-12&rft.aulast=Teare&rft.aufirst=Kendall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.yale.edu%2F2019%2F08%2F12%2Fyale-film-scholar-dziga-vertov-enigma-movie-camera&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.rferl.org/a/eldar-ryazanov-films/27398408.html) "Eldar Ryazanov And His Films" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty) (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty) Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty . 30 November 2015. (https://web.archive.org/web/20220331102410/https://www.rferl.org/a/eldar-ryazanov-films/27398408.html) Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 27 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Eldar+Ryazanov+And+His+Films&rft.pub=Radio+Free+Europe%2FRadio+Liberty&rft.date=2015-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rferl.org%2Fa%2Feldar-ryazanov-films%2F27398408.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Prokhorova, Elena; Beumers, Birgit (2008). "The Man Who Made Them Laugh: Leonid Gaidai, the King of Soviet Comedy". A History of Russian Cinema . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berg_Publishers) (Berg Publishers) Berg Publishers . pp. 519– 542. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84520-215-6) (Special:BookSources/978-1-84520-215-6) 978-1-84520-215-6  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Man+Who+Made+Them+Laugh%3A+Leonid+Gaidai%2C+the+King+of+Soviet+Comedy&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russian+Cinema&rft.pages=519-542&rft.pub=Berg+Publishers&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84520-215-6&rft.aulast=Prokhorova&rft.aufirst=Elena&rft.au=Beumers%2C+Birgit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://web.archive.org/web/20080905102633/http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html) "White Sun of the Desert" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film_at_Lincoln_Center) (Film at Lincoln Center) Film at Lincoln Center . Archived from (http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html) the original on 5 September 2008. Retrieved 18 January 2008 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=White+Sun+of+the+Desert&rft.pub=Film+at+Lincoln+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffilmlinc.com%2Fwrt%2Fonsale08%2Frussian08%2Fwhitesunofthedesert.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Aris, Ben (18 January 2019). (https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/01/18/the-revival-of-russias-cinema-industry-a64197) "The Revival of Russia's Cinema Industry" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Moscow_Times) (The Moscow Times) The Moscow Times  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220331103222/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/01/18/the-revival-of-russias-cinema-industry-a64197) Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Moscow+Times&rft.atitle=The+Revival+of+Russia%27s+Cinema+Industry&rft.date=2019-01-18&rft.aulast=Aris&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.themoscowtimes.com%2F2019%2F01%2F18%2Fthe-revival-of-russias-cinema-industry-a64197&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Azhnina, Maria (13 July 2017). (https://www.rbth.com/russian_kitchen/2017/07/13/7-kinds-of-russian-bread-youll-want-to-bite-the-crust-off-of_801997) "7 kinds of Russian bread you'll want to bite the crust off of" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia_Beyond) (Russia Beyond) Russia Beyond  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.rbth.com/russian_kitchen/2017/07/13/7-kinds-of-russian-bread-youll-want-to-bite-the-crust-off-of_801997) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 5 December 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russia+Beyond&rft.atitle=7+kinds+of+Russian+bread+you%27ll+want+to+bite+the+crust+off+of&rft.date=2017-07-13&rft.aulast=Azhnina&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rbth.com%2Frussian_kitchen%2F2017%2F07%2F13%2F7-kinds-of-russian-bread-youll-want-to-bite-the-crust-off-of_801997&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Thatcher, Gary (16 September 1985). (https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0916/obread.html) "When it comes to bread, Russians don't loaf" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Christian_Science_Monitor) (The Christian Science Monitor) The Christian Science Monitor  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220329054125/https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0916/obread.html) Archived from the original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Science+Monitor&rft.atitle=When+it+comes+to+bread%2C+Russians+don%27t+loaf&rft.date=1985-09-16&rft.aulast=Thatcher&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csmonitor.com%2F1985%2F0916%2Fobread.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Eremeeva, Jennifer (15 May 2021). (https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/05/15/spotlight-on-smetana-russias-sour-cream-a73909) "Spotlight on Smetana: Russia's Sour Cream" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Moscow_Times) (The Moscow Times) The Moscow Times  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220407152416/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/05/15/spotlight-on-smetana-russias-sour-cream-a73909) Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Moscow+Times&rft.atitle=Spotlight+on+Smetana%3A+Russia%27s+Sour+Cream&rft.date=2021-05-15&rft.aulast=Eremeeva&rft.aufirst=Jennifer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.themoscowtimes.com%2F2021%2F05%2F15%2Fspotlight-on-smetana-russias-sour-cream-a73909&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Shearlaw, Maeve (21 November 2014). (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/21/-sp-understanding-russias-obsession-with-mayonnaise) "Understanding Russia's obsession with mayonnaise" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian) (The Guardian) The Guardian  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/21/-sp-understanding-russias-obsession-with-mayonnaise) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 5 December 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Understanding+Russia%27s+obsession+with+mayonnaise&rft.date=2014-11-21&rft.aulast=Shearlaw&rft.aufirst=Maeve&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2014%2Fnov%2F21%2F-sp-understanding-russias-obsession-with-mayonnaise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darra_Goldstein) (Darra Goldstein) Goldstein, Darra (1999). A Taste of Russia: A Cookbook of Russian Hospitality (2nd ed.). Russian Information Service. p. 54. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-880-10042-4) (Special:BookSources/978-1-880-10042-4) 978-1-880-10042-4  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Taste+of+Russia%3A+A+Cookbook+of+Russian+Hospitality&rft.pages=54&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Russian+Information+Service&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-880-10042-4&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Darra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Curtis, Michele (2018). In the Kitchen: The New Bible of Home Cooking . Hardie Grant Publishing. p. 66. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-743-58555-9) (Special:BookSources/978-1-743-58555-9) 978-1-743-58555-9  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Kitchen%3A+The+New+Bible+of+Home+Cooking&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Hardie+Grant+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-743-58555-9&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=Michele&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Sacharow, Alla (1993). Classic Russian Cuisine: A Magnificent Selection of More Than 400 Traditional Recipes . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf) (Alfred A. Knopf) Alfred A. Knopf . p. 281. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-628-72079-2) (Special:BookSources/978-1-628-72079-2) 978-1-628-72079-2  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classic+Russian+Cuisine%3A+A+Magnificent+Selection+of+More+Than+400+Traditional+Recipes&rft.pages=281&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-628-72079-2&rft.aulast=Sacharow&rft.aufirst=Alla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    1  2   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Volokh, Anne; Manus, Mavis (1983). The Art of Russian Cuisine . New York: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers) (Macmillan Publishers) Macmillan Publishers . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-026-22090-3) (Special:BookSources/978-0-026-22090-3) 978-0-026-22090-3  . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jane+Grigson%27s+Vegetable+Book&rft.pages=144&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-803-25994-2&rft.aulast=Grigson&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Naylor, Tony (22 July 2020). (https://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/jul/22/from-sizzling-shashlik-to-spicy-seekh-kebabs-barbecue-recipes-from-around-the-world) "From sizzling shashlik to spicy seekh kebabs: barbecue recipes from around the world" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian) (The Guardian) The Guardian  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/jul/22/from-sizzling-shashlik-to-spicy-seekh-kebabs-barbecue-recipes-from-around-the-world) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2021 . 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(https://www.euroleague.net/news/i/15364/eurobasket-2007-final-september-16-2007) "EuroBasket 2007 final: September 16, 2007" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EuroLeague) (EuroLeague) EuroLeague  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20211116171531/https://www.euroleague.net/news/i/15364/eurobasket-2007-final-september-16-2007) Archived from the original on 16 November 2021. Retrieved 31 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EuroLeague&rft.atitle=EuroBasket+2007+final%3A+September+16%2C+2007&rft.date=2007-09-16&rft.aulast=Gancedo&rft.aufirst=Javier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.euroleague.net%2Fnews%2Fi%2F15364%2Feurobasket-2007-final-september-16-2007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Burks, Tosten; Woo, Jeremy (4 August 2015). (http://grantland.com/features/euroleague-basketball-cska-moscow-andrei-kirilenko-sonny-weems-kyle-hines-demetris-nichols/) "Follow the Bouncing Ball" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grantland) (Grantland) Grantland  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220331085523/https://grantland.com/features/euroleague-basketball-cska-moscow-andrei-kirilenko-sonny-weems-kyle-hines-demetris-nichols/) Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 13 August 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Grantland&rft.atitle=Follow+the+Bouncing+Ball&rft.date=2015-08-04&rft.aulast=Burks&rft.aufirst=Tosten&rft.au=Woo%2C+Jeremy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgrantland.com%2Ffeatures%2Feuroleague-basketball-cska-moscow-andrei-kirilenko-sonny-weems-kyle-hines-demetris-nichols%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.formula1.com/en/information.russia-sochi-autodrom.3nDdZPizsnPEtlHysv115Y.html) "Russia – Sochi" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formula_One) (Formula One) Formula One . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220321211802/https://www.formula1.com/en/information.russia-sochi-autodrom.3nDdZPizsnPEtlHysv115Y.html) Archived from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russia+%E2%80%93+Sochi&rft.pub=Formula+One&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.formula1.com%2Fen%2Finformation.russia-sochi-autodrom.3nDdZPizsnPEtlHysv115Y.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Benson, Andrew (3 March 2022). (https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/60601632) "Formula 1 terminates contract with Russian Grand Prix" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC) (BBC) BBC  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220528020322/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/60601632) Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2022 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Russian+mastery+in+synchronized+swimming+yields+double+gold&rft.date=2016-08-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fstory%2Fsports%2Folympics%2F2016%2F08%2F19%2Frussian-mastery-in-synchronized-swimming-yields-double-gold%2F89000222%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Jennings, Rebecca (18 February 2021). (https://www.vox.com/the-goods/22276736/figure-skating-olympics-winter-2022-lessons) "Figure skating is on thin ice. Here's how to fix it" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vox_(website)) (Vox (website)) Vox  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132621/https://www.vox.com/the-goods/22276736/figure-skating-olympics-winter-2022-lessons) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vox&rft.atitle=Figure+skating+is+on+thin+ice.+Here%27s+how+to+fix+it.&rft.date=2021-02-18&rft.aulast=Jennings&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vox.com%2Fthe-goods%2F22276736%2Ffigure-skating-olympics-winter-2022-lessons&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Caffrey, Oliver (11 February 2021). (https://thewest.com.au/sport/tennis/rublev-dominates-second-round-open-match-ng-s-2049116) "Russian domination at the Australian Open" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_West_Australian) (The West Australian) The West Australian  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408175101/https://thewest.com.au/sport/tennis/rublev-dominates-second-round-open-match-ng-s-2049116) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2022 . 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(ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Olympics.com&rft.atitle=Moscow+1980+Summer+Olympics+%E2%80%93+Athletes%2C+Medals+%26+Results&rft.date=2018-04-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Folympics.com%2Fen%2Folympic-games%2Fmoscow-1980&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/sochi-2014) "Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics – Athletes, Medals & Results" . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee) (International Olympic Committee) International Olympic Committee . 23 April 2018. (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132652/https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/sochi-2014) Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 31 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sochi+2014+Winter+Olympics+%E2%80%93+Athletes%2C+Medals+%26+Results&rft.pub=International+Olympic+Committee&rft.date=2018-04-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Folympics.com%2Fen%2Folympic-games%2Fsochi-2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://www.paralympic.org/sochi-2014) "Sochi 2014" . International Paralympic Committee . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Paralympic_Committee) (International Paralympic Committee) International Paralympic Committee . (https://web.archive.org/web/20180806054846/https://www.paralympic.org/sochi-2014) Archived from the original on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 31 May 2021 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Paralympic+Committee&rft.atitle=Sochi+2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.paralympic.org%2Fsochi-2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    ↑   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Keh, Andrew; Panja, Tariq (8 December 2019). (Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required) (https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/sports/olympics/Wada-Russing-doping.html) "Will Russia Be Thrown Out of the Olympics on Monday? A Primer"  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times) (The New York Times) The New York Times  . (https://web.archive.org/web/20220407171349/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/sports/olympics/Wada-Russing-doping.html) Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Will+Russia+Be+Thrown+Out+of+the+Olympics+on+Monday%3F+A+Primer&rft.date=2019-12-08&rft.aulast=Keh&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Panja%2C+Tariq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F12%2F08%2Fsports%2Folympics%2FWada-Russing-doping.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)        Sources  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg)     This article incorporates text from a  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_content) (Free content) free content work.  Licensed under CC BY 4.0  ( (https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/af2ef37e-cbf5-49ce-b05a-ecb5725f9769/ListordescriptionofCC-licensedContent_20220406.pdf) license statement/permission ).  Text taken from  (https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently-asked-questions-on-energy-security) Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security​   ,  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Energy_Agency) (International Energy Agency) International Energy Agency ,  the International Energy Agency. (./Category:Free-content_attribution)   (./Category:Free_content_from_the_International_Energy_Agency)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Bushkovitch, Paul (5 December 2011). (https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Concise_History_of_Russia.html?id=Le-n7ZYjGWkC) A Concise History of Russia  . Cambridge University Press. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-50444-7) (Special:BookSources/978-1-139-50444-7) 978-1-139-50444-7  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Russia&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-12-05&rft.isbn=978-1-139-50444-7&rft.aulast=Bushkovitch&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FA_Concise_History_of_Russia.html%3Fid%3DLe-n7ZYjGWkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Channon, John; Hudson, Robert (1995). (https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Penguin_Historical_Atlas_of_Russia/kewWAQAAIAAJ?hl=en) The Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia  . Viking. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-670-86461-4) (Special:BookSources/978-0-670-86461-4) 978-0-670-86461-4  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Penguin+Historical+Atlas+of+Russia&rft.pub=Viking&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-670-86461-4&rft.aulast=Channon&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Hudson%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FThe_Penguin_Historical_Atlas_of_Russia%2FkewWAQAAIAAJ%3Fhl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Curtis, Glenn E., ed. (1998). (https://archive.org/details/russiacountrystu00curt/mode/2up) Russia: A Country Study  . Area Handbook. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)) (Hdl (identifier)) hdl :(https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuc1.31822023563547) 2027/uc1.31822023563547 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0866-8) (Special:BookSources/978-0-8444-0866-8) 978-0-8444-0866-8  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)) (LCCN (identifier)) LCCN  (https://lccn.loc.gov/97007563) 97007563 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+A+Country+Study&rft.series=Area+Handbook&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fuc1.31822023563547&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F97007563&rft.isbn=978-0-8444-0866-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiacountrystu00curt%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Dukes_(historian)) (Paul Dukes (historian)) Dukes, Paul (1998). (https://books.google.com/books/about/A_History_of_Russia.html?id=QZkiAQAAIAAJ) A History of Russia: Medieval, Modern, Contemporary C. 882–1996  . Macmillan Education UK. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-349-26080-5) 10.1007/978-1-349-26080-5 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-66066-9) (Special:BookSources/978-0-333-66066-9) 978-0-333-66066-9  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Russia%3A+Medieval%2C+Modern%2C+Contemporary+C.+882%E2%80%931996&rft.pub=Macmillan+Education+UK&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-349-26080-5&rft.isbn=978-0-333-66066-9&rft.aulast=Dukes&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FA_History_of_Russia.html%3Fid%3DQZkiAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Galeotti) (Mark Galeotti) Galeotti, Mark (5 November 2024). (https://www.google.com/books/edition/Forged_in_War/iw0wEQAAQBAJ) Forged in War: A Military History of Russia from Its Beginnings to Today  . Bloomsbury USA. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-6251-8) (Special:BookSources/978-1-4728-6251-8) 978-1-4728-6251-8  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forged+in+War%3A+A+Military+History+of+Russia+from+Its+Beginnings+to+Today&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+USA&rft.date=2024-11-05&rft.isbn=978-1-4728-6251-8&rft.aulast=Galeotti&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fedition%2FForged_in_War%2Fiw0wEQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Ward, Christopher J.; Thompson, John M. (20 July 2021). (https://books.google.com/books/about/Russia.html?id=2AwxEAAAQBAJ) Russia: A Historical Introduction from Kievan Rus' to the Present  . Routledge. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-41539-1) (Special:BookSources/978-1-000-41539-1) 978-1-000-41539-1  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+A+Historical+Introduction+from+Kievan+Rus%27+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021-07-20&rft.isbn=978-1-000-41539-1&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rft.au=Thompson%2C+John+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%2Fabout%2FRussia.html%3Fid%3D2AwxEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)      Further reading  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1368532237)   Main articles: (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_the_Early_Slavs_and_Rus') (Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus') Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus' , (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_Russian_history_(1223–1613)) (Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)) Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613) , and (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_Russian_history_(1613–1917)) (Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)) Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)   Bartlett, Roger P. (2005). A history of Russia (https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00bart) online  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosamund_Bartlett) (Rosamund Bartlett) Bartlett, Rosamund ; Benn, Anna, eds. (1997). Literary Russia. A Guide . London: Picador. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-71197-1) (Special:BookSources/0-333-71197-1) 0-333-71197-1  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Literary+Russia.+A+Guide&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Picador&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-333-71197-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Borrero, Mauricio (2004). (https://books.google.com/books?id=dhm0cGdrTOIC) Russia: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present  . European Nations. New York: Facts on File. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-4454-6) (Special:BookSources/0-8160-4454-6) 0-8160-4454-6  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%3A+A+Reference+Guide+from+the+Renaissance+to+the+Present&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=European+Nations&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-8160-4454-6&rft.aulast=Borrero&rft.aufirst=Mauricio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ddhm0cGdrTOIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)   Breslauer, George W.; Colton, Timothy J. (2017). Russia Beyond Putin ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)) (Daedalus (journal)) Daedalus  ) (https://www.amacad.org/daedalus/russia-beyond-putin) online (https://web.archive.org/web/20220121032944/https://www.amacad.org/daedalus/russia-beyond-putin) Archived 21 January 2022 at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine) (Wayback Machine) Wayback Machine (./Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links)   Brown, Archie, ed. (1982). The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00brow) online  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Cox, Michael (2023). Cox, Michael (ed.). Ukraine: Russia's War and the Future of the Global Order . LSE Press. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.31389%2Flsepress.ukr) 10.31389/lsepress.ukr . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-911712-15-2) (Special:BookSources/978-1-911712-15-2) 978-1-911712-15-2  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ukraine%3A+Russia%27s+War+and+the+Future+of+the+Global+Order&rft.pub=LSE+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.31389%2Flsepress.ukr&rft.isbn=978-1-911712-15-2&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Dutkiewicz, P.; Richard, S.; Vladimir, K. (2016). (https://books.google.com/books?id=vo7DCwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1) The Social History of Post-Communist Russia  . Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series. Taylor & Francis. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-32846-9) (Special:BookSources/978-1-317-32846-9) 978-1-317-32846-9  . Retrieved 11 April 2022 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+History+of+Post-Communist+Russia&rft.series=Routledge+Contemporary+Russia+and+Eastern+Europe+Series&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-32846-9&rft.aulast=Dutkiewicz&rft.aufirst=P.&rft.au=Richard%2C+S.&rft.au=Vladimir%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvo7DCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)   Frye, Timothy. Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia (2021) (https://www.amazon.com/Weak-Strongman-Limits-Putins-Russia/dp/0691212465/) excerpt (https://web.archive.org/web/20220331074724/https://www.amazon.com/Weak-Strongman-Limits-Putins-Russia/dp/0691212465) Archived 31 March 2022 at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine) (Wayback Machine) Wayback Machine (./Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links)   Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia (Yale UP, 2019) (https://www.amazon.com/Putin-v-People-Perilous-Politics/dp/0300238398/) excerpt  Hosking, Geoffrey A. Russia and the Russians: a history (2011) (https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi2ndehosk) online  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin) (Peter Kropotkin) Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch ; Bealby, John Thomas; (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Alison_Phillips) (Walter Alison Phillips) Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). (s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Russia) (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Russia) "Russia"   . In (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm) (Hugh Chisholm) Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopædia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition) (Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition) Encyclopædia Britannica  . Vol. 23 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 869– 912. (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Russia&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=869-912&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Kropotkin&rft.aufirst=Peter+Alexeivitch&rft.au=Bealby%2C+John+Thomas&rft.au=Phillips%2C+Walter+Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)  (./Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference)   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Pynnöniemi, Katri (2021). Pynnöniemi, Katri (ed.). (https://hup.fi/books/e/10.33134/HUP-9) Nexus of Patriotism and Militarism in Russia: A Quest for Internal Cohesion  . Helsinki University Press. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)) (Doi (identifier)) doi :(https://doi.org/10.33134%2FHUP-9) 10.33134/HUP-9 . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-952-369-035-6) (Special:BookSources/978-952-369-035-6) 978-952-369-035-6  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nexus+of+Patriotism+and+Militarism+in+Russia%3A+A+Quest+for+Internal+Cohesion&rft.pub=Helsinki+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.33134%2FHUP-9&rft.isbn=978-952-369-035-6&rft.aulast=Pynn%C3%B6niemi&rft.aufirst=Katri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhup.fi%2Fbooks%2Fe%2F10.33134%2FHUP-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Rancour-Laferriere, Daniel (1995). (https://opensquare.nyupress.org/books/9780814769409/) The Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and the Cult of Suffering  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University_Press) (New York University Press) New York University Press . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-6940-9) (Special:BookSources/978-0-8147-6940-9) 978-0-8147-6940-9  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slave+Soul+of+Russia%3A+Moral+Masochism+and+the+Cult+of+Suffering&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8147-6940-9&rft.aulast=Rancour-Laferriere&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopensquare.nyupress.org%2Fbooks%2F9780814769409%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Reiman, Michael (2016). About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present . Peter Lang. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-67136-8) (Special:BookSources/978-3-631-67136-8) 978-3-631-67136-8  . (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)) (JSTOR (identifier)) JSTOR  (https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv2t4dn7) j.ctv2t4dn7 . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=About+Russia%2C+Its+Revolutions%2C+Its+Development+and+Its+Present&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctv2t4dn7%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-3-631-67136-8&rft.aulast=Reiman&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)   Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. A History of Russia (9th ed. 2018) (https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia0000rias) 9th edition 1993 online  Rosefielde, Steven. Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy (2020) (https://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Economy-Defense-Foreign/dp/9811212678/) excerpt (https://web.archive.org/web/20210527160046/https://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Economy-Defense-Foreign/dp/9811212678/) Archived 27 May 2021 at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine) (Wayback Machine) Wayback Machine (./Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links)   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333433106)  Shadrina, Anna (2025). (https://uclpress.co.uk/book/the-babushka-phenomenon/) The Babushka Phenomenon: Older women and the political sociology of ageing in Russia  . UCL Press. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)) (ISBN (identifier)) ISBN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80008-909-9) (Special:BookSources/978-1-80008-909-9) 978-1-80008-909-9  . (ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Babushka+Phenomenon%3A+Older+women+and+the+political+sociology+of+ageing+in+Russia&rft.pub=UCL+Press&rft.date=2025&rft.isbn=978-1-80008-909-9&rft.aulast=Shadrina&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuclpress.co.uk%2Fbook%2Fthe-babushka-phenomenon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARussia)   Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture (2014) (https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Contemporary-Russian-Culture-Encyclopedias/dp/0415758629/) excerpt (https://web.archive.org/web/20220330023255/https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Contemporary-Russian-Culture-Encyclopedias/dp/0415758629) Archived 30 March 2022 at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine) (Wayback Machine) Wayback Machine (./Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links)  ; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics. Walker, Shauin. The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past (2018, Oxford UP) (https://www.amazon.com/Long-Hangover-Putins-Russia-Ghosts/dp/0190659246) excerpt (https://web.archive.org/web/20220408020656/https://www.amazon.com/Long-Hangover-Putins-Russia-Ghosts/dp/0190659246/) Archived 8 April 2022 at the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine) (Wayback Machine) Wayback Machine (./Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links)      External links   (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409)   Russia at Wikipedia's (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects) (Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects) sister projects   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg) (Wikimedia Commons logo)    (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Россия) (c:Россия) Media from Commons  ()    (https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Russia) (q:Russia) Quotations from Wikiquote  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg) (Wikivoyage logo)    (https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Russia) (voy:Russia) Travel information from Wikivoyage      Government  (http://gov.ru/index_en.html) Official website   (./Category:Official_website_different_in_Wikidata_and_Wikipedia)   (http://en.special.kremlin.ru/structure/administration/members) Major staff and key officials   General information  ()     (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas%20of%20Russia) (commons:Atlas of Russia) Wikimedia Atlas of Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Openstreetmap_logo.svg) (icon)    Geographic data related to  (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/60189) Russia at  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenStreetMap) (OpenStreetMap) OpenStreetMap  (https://web.archive.org/web/20260115083458/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/) Russia . 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(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Europe) (List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe) Sovereign states and dependencies of Europe    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_state) (Sovereign state) Sovereign states  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania) (Albania) Albania  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorra) (Andorra) Andorra  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia) (Armenia) Armenia 2  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria) (Austria) Austria  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan) (Azerbaijan) Azerbaijan 1  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus) (Belarus) Belarus  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium) (Belgium) Belgium  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina) (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Bosnia and Herzegovina  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria) (Bulgaria) Bulgaria  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatia) (Croatia) Croatia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus) (Cyprus) Cyprus 2  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic) (Czech Republic) Czech Republic  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark) (Denmark) Denmark  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia) (Estonia) Estonia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland) (Finland) Finland  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France) (France) France  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)) (Georgia (country)) Georgia 1  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany) (Germany) Germany  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece) (Greece) Greece  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary) (Hungary) Hungary  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland) (Iceland) Iceland 3  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland) (Republic of Ireland) Ireland  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy) (Italy) Italy  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan) (Kazakhstan) Kazakhstan 1  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia) (Latvia) Latvia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liechtenstein) (Liechtenstein) Liechtenstein  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania) (Lithuania) Lithuania  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg) (Luxembourg) Luxembourg  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta) (Malta) Malta  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova) (Moldova) Moldova  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monaco) (Monaco) Monaco  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegro) (Montenegro) Montenegro  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands) (Netherlands) Netherlands  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Macedonia) (North Macedonia) North Macedonia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway) (Norway) Norway  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland) (Poland) Poland  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal) (Portugal) Portugal  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania) (Romania) Romania  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) Russia 1  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Marino) (San Marino) San Marino  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia) (Serbia) Serbia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia) (Slovakia) Slovakia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia) (Slovenia) Slovenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain) (Spain) Spain  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden) (Sweden) Sweden  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland) (Switzerland) Switzerland  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey) (Turkey) Turkey 1  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine) (Ukraine) Ukraine  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom) (United Kingdom) United Kingdom  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican_City) (Vatican City) Vatican City 4      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition) (List of states with limited recognition) States with limited recognition   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhazia) (Abkhazia) Abkhazia 2  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosovo) (Kosovo) Kosovo  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cyprus) (Northern Cyprus) Northern Cyprus 2  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ossetia) (South Ossetia) South Ossetia 2  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transnistria) (Transnistria) Transnistria      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_territory) (Dependent territory) Dependent territories    Denmark (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islands) (Faroe Islands) Faroe Islands 3 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Realm) (Danish Realm) autonomous country of the Kingdom of Denmark        United Kingdom  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrotiri_and_Dhekelia) (Akrotiri and Dhekelia) Akrotiri and Dhekelia 2 (Sovereign Base Areas) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar) (Gibraltar) Gibraltar ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Overseas_Territories) (British Overseas Territories) British Overseas Territory )     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Dependencies) (Crown Dependencies) Crown Dependencies  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bailiwick_of_Guernsey) (Bailiwick of Guernsey) Bailiwick of Guernsey (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alderney) (Alderney) Alderney  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernsey) (Guernsey) Guernsey  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sark) (Sark) Sark    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jersey) (Jersey) Bailiwick of Jersey  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Man) (Isle of Man) Isle of Man                Special areas of internal sovereignty   Finland (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Åland) (Åland) Åland ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomous_administrative_division) (Autonomous administrative division) autonomous region subject to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Åland_convention) (Åland convention) Åland convention of 1921)     Norway (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard) (Svalbard) Svalbard ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_area) (Unincorporated area) unincorporated area subject to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svalbard_Treaty) (Svalbard Treaty) Svalbard Treaty )     United Kingdom (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland) (Northern Ireland) Northern Ireland ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countries_of_the_United_Kingdom) (Countries of the United Kingdom) country of the United Kingdom subject to the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_Friday_Agreement) (Good Friday Agreement) British-Irish Agreement )          1 Spans the conventional boundary between Europe and another continent. 2 Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in Western Asia. 3 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island#Oceanic_islands) (Island) Oceanic islands within the vicinity of Europe are usually grouped with the continent even though they are not situated on its continental shelf. 4 Governed by the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_See) (Holy See) Holy See which has sovereignty over Vatican City.  (Category) ()    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Europe) (Category:Europe) Category   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg) (Portal) ()    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Europe) (Portal:Europe) Europe portal          (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Eastern_Europe) (Template:Eastern Europe) (View this template) v   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Eastern_Europe) (Template talk:Eastern Europe) (Discuss this template) t   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern_Europe) (Special:EditPage/Template:Eastern Europe) (Edit this template) e     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Europe) (Eastern Europe) Eastern Europe    Sovereign states (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia) (Armenia) Armenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan) (Azerbaijan) Azerbaijan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus) (Belarus) Belarus  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria) (Bulgaria) Bulgaria  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic) (Czech Republic) Czech Republic  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia) (Estonia) Estonia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)) (Georgia (country)) Georgia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungary) (Hungary) Hungary  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latvia) (Latvia) Latvia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania) (Lithuania) Lithuania  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova) (Moldova) Moldova  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland) (Poland) Poland  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania) (Romania) Romania  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia) (Slovakia) Slovakia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey) (Turkey) Turkey (only (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Thrace) (East Thrace) East Thrace ) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine) (Ukraine) Ukraine      States with limited recognition (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abkhazia) (Abkhazia) Abkhazia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Ossetia) (South Ossetia) South Ossetia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transnistria) (Transnistria) Transnistria      History (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia) (History of Abkhazia) Abkhazia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Armenia) (History of Armenia) Armenia ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_Armenia) (Prehistoric Armenia) Prehistoric Armenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orontid_dynasty#History) (Orontid dynasty) Orontid dynasty  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artaxiad_dynasty#History) (Artaxiad dynasty) Artaxiad dynasty  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Armenia#History) (Roman Armenia) Roman Armenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Armenia#History) (Arsacid dynasty of Armenia) Arsacid dynasty  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Armenia#History) (Sasanian Armenia) Sasanian Armenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Armenia) (Medieval Armenia) Medieval Armenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Georgia) (Mongol invasions of Georgia) Mongol invasions  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia#History) (Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia) Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Ottoman_Armenia:_1453–1829) (Armenians in the Ottoman Empire) 1453–1829  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Armenia_(1502–1828)#History) (Iranian Armenia (1502–1828)) 1502–1828  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#Ottoman_Armenia:_1829–1878) (Armenians in the Ottoman Empire) 1829–1878  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenians_in_the_Ottoman_Empire#National_awakening:_1880s) (Armenians in the Ottoman Empire) 1880–1918  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Armenia) (Russian Armenia) Russian Empire  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_genocide) (Armenian genocide) Armenian genocide  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_campaign) (Caucasus campaign) Caucasus campaign  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Republic_of_Armenia#History) (First Republic of Armenia) First Republic of Armenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armeno-Georgian_War) (Armeno-Georgian War) Armeno-Georgian War  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian–Azerbaijani_war_(1918–1920)) (Armenian–Azerbaijani war (1918–1920)) Armenian–Azerbaijani war  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish–Armenian_War) (Turkish–Armenian War) Turkish–Armenian War  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic#History) (Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic) Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic ) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan) (History of Azerbaijan) Azerbaijan ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_Age_in_Azerbaijan) (Stone Age in Azerbaijan) Stone Age  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_and_Iron_Age_in_Azerbaijan) (Bronze and Iron Age in Azerbaijan) Bronze and Iron Age  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages_in_Azerbaijan) (Early Middle Ages in Azerbaijan) Early Middle Ages  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalinist_repressions_in_Azerbaijan) (Stalinist repressions in Azerbaijan) Stalinist repressions  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan_in_World_War_II) (Azerbaijan in World War II) World War II ) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Balkans) (History of the Balkans) Balkans  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Belarus) (History of Belarus) Belarus ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russification_of_Belarus) (Russification of Belarus) Russification  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarusian_history_in_the_Russian_Empire) (Belarusian history in the Russian Empire) Russian Empire  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_repressions_in_Belarus) (Soviet repressions in Belarus) Soviet repressions  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Byelorussia_during_World_War_II) (German occupation of Byelorussia during World War II) German occupation  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Belarus) (The Holocaust in Belarus) Holocaust ) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria) (History of Bulgaria) Bulgaria ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odrysian_kingdom#History) (Odrysian kingdom) Odrysian kingdom  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Great_Bulgaria#History) (Old Great Bulgaria) Old Great Bulgaria  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire#History) (First Bulgarian Empire) First Bulgarian Empire  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria) (Christianization of Bulgaria) Christianization  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Bulgaria) (Golden Age of Bulgaria) Golden Age  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire#History) (Second Bulgarian Empire) Second Bulgarian Empire  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Bulgaria) (Ottoman Bulgaria) Ottoman Empire  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria_(1878–1946)) (History of Bulgaria (1878–1946)) 1878–1946 ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria_in_World_War_I) (Bulgaria in World War I) World War I  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria_in_World_War_II) (Bulgaria in World War II) World War II ) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_Republic_of_Bulgaria) (People's Republic of Bulgaria) People's Republic of Bulgaria  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Bulgaria_since_1989) (History of Bulgaria since 1989) 1989–present ) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Caucasus) (History of the Caucasus) Caucasus  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Czech_lands) (History of the Czech lands) Czech Republic ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Moravia#History) (Great Moravia) Great Moravia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Bohemia#History) (Duchy of Bohemia) Duchy of Bohemia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_lands_in_the_High_Middle_Ages) (Czech lands in the High Middle Ages) High Middle Ages ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia#History) (Kingdom of Bohemia) Kingdom of Bohemia ) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(1526–1648)#History) (Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1526–1648)) 1526–1648  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(1648–1867)#History) (Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1648–1867)) 1648–1867  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(1867–1918)#History) (Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1867–1918)) 1867–1918  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Czechoslovakia) (History of Czechoslovakia) History of Czechoslovakia ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Czechoslovakia_(1918–1938)) (History of Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)) 1918–1938  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Czechoslovakia_(1938–1945)) (Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)) German occupation  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia#History) (Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia) Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistance_in_the_Protectorate_of_Bohemia_and_Moravia) (Resistance in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia) Czech resistance against German occupation  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Czechoslovak_Republic#History) (Third Czechoslovak Republic) 1945–1948  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Czechoslovakia_(1989–1992)) (History of Czechoslovakia (1989–1992)) 1989–1992 )) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Estonia) (History of Estonia) Estonia ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Estonia) (Ancient Estonia) Ancient Estonia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livonian_Crusade) (Livonian Crusade) Livonian Crusade  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Estonia_(1219–1346)#Danish_conquest) (Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)) Danish conquest  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_Mariana#History) (Terra Mariana) Terra Mariana  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia_under_Swedish_rule) (Estonia under Swedish rule) Swedish rule  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estophilia#Estophile_Enlightenment_Period_(1750–1840)) (Estophilia) Estophile Enlightenment  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_national_awakening) (Estonian national awakening) National awakening  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Estonia_during_World_War_I) (German occupation of Estonia during World War I) German occupation in World War I  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_War_of_Independence) (Estonian War of Independence) Estonian War of Independence  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Estonia_(1920–1939)) (History of Estonia (1920–1939)) 1920–1939  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)) (Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)) Soviet invasion  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_deportations_from_Estonia) (Soviet deportations from Estonia) Soviet deportations  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_states_under_Soviet_rule_(1944–1991)) (Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)) Soviet rule  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonia_in_World_War_II) (Estonia in World War II) Estonia in World War II ((https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_occupation_of_Estonia_during_World_War_II) (German occupation of Estonia during World War II) German occupation of Estonia during World War II  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Holocaust_in_Estonia) (The Holocaust in Estonia) Holocaust ) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic#History) (Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic) Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic ) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)) (History of Georgia (country)) Georgia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Hungary) (History of Hungary) Hungary  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Latvia) (History of Latvia) Latvia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Lithuania) (History of Lithuania) Lithuania  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Moldova) (History of Moldova) Moldova  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire) (History of the Ottoman Empire) Ottoman Empire  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Romania) (History of Romania) Romania  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Russia) (History of Russia) Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Slovakia) (History of Slovakia) Slovakia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Soviet_Union) (History of the Soviet Union) Soviet Union  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Transnistria) (History of Transnistria) Transnistria  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Turkey) (History of Turkey) Turkey  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Ukraine) (History of Ukraine) Ukraine  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Yugoslavia) (History of Yugoslavia) Yugoslavia         (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562)    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Charter) CIS Charter (1993)     Parties  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belovezha_Accords) (Belovezha Accords) 1991 agreements (11) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia) (Armenia) Armenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan) (Azerbaijan) Azerbaijan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus) (Belarus) Belarus  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan) (Kazakhstan) Kazakhstan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan) (Kyrgyzstan) Kyrgyzstan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova) (Moldova) Moldova [β]   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan) (Tajikistan) Tajikistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan) (Turkmenistan) Turkmenistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukraine–Commonwealth_of_Independent_States_relations) (Ukraine–Commonwealth of Independent States relations) Ukraine  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan) (Uzbekistan) Uzbekistan      1993 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIS_Charter) (CIS Charter) CIS Charter (members) (9) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia) (Armenia) Armenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan) (Azerbaijan) Azerbaijan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus) (Belarus) Belarus  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan) (Kazakhstan) Kazakhstan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan) (Kyrgyzstan) Kyrgyzstan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova) (Moldova) Moldova [β]   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan) (Tajikistan) Tajikistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan) (Uzbekistan) Uzbekistan      "Associate member" as defined in the (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIS_Charter) (CIS Charter) CIS Charter (1) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan) (Turkmenistan) Turkmenistan [α]       Former member states (1) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_(country)) (Georgia (country)) Georgia (1993–2009)          Sports (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Team_at_the_Olympics) (Unified Team at the Olympics) Unified Team at the Olympics  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Team_at_the_Paralympics) (Unified Team at the Paralympics) Unified Team at the Paralympics  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States_national_bandy_team) (Commonwealth of Independent States national bandy team) CIS national bandy team  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIS_national_football_team) (CIS national football team) CIS national football team  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIS_men's_national_ice_hockey_team) (CIS men's national ice hockey team) CIS national ice hockey team  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIS_(rugby)) (CIS (rugby)) CIS national rugby union team  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States_Cup) (Commonwealth of Independent States Cup) CIS Cup (football)      Military (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization) (Collective Security Treaty Organization) Collective Security Treaty (1992-1999/2002)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Armed_Forces_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States) (United Armed Forces of the Commonwealth of Independent States) United Armed Forces (1992)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_CIS_Air_Defense_System) (Joint CIS Air Defense System) Joint CIS Air Defense System  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_Defense_of_the_CIS) (Council of Ministers of Defense of the CIS) Council of Ministers of Defense of the CIS      Economics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Economic_Space_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States) (Common Economic Space of the Commonwealth of Independent States) Common Economic Space  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Court_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States) (Economic Court of the Commonwealth of Independent States) Economic Court  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States_Agreement_on_the_Establishment_of_a_Free_Trade_Area) (Commonwealth of Independent States Agreement on the Establishment of a Free Trade Area) 1994 FTA Agreement  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States_Treaty_on_Free_Trade_Area) (Commonwealth of Independent States Treaty on Free Trade Area) 2011 FTA Treaty  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States_Agreement_on_Free_Trade_in_Services,_Establishment,_Operations_and_Investment) (Commonwealth of Independent States Agreement on Free Trade in Services, Establishment, Operations and Investment) 2023 Free Trade in Services      Organization (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_Aviation_Committee) (Interstate Aviation Committee) Interstate Aviation Committee  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GOST) (GOST) GOST (Euro-Asian Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification)      Outside the CIS framework Georgia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Community) (Eurasian Economic Community) Eurasian Economic Community  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Patent_Convention) (Eurasian Patent Convention) Eurasian Patent Convention  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Patent_Organization) (Eurasian Patent Organization) Eurasian Patent Organization  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_Assistance_to_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States) (Technical Assistance to the Commonwealth of Independent States) EU Technical Aid  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customs_Union_of_the_Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Customs Union of the Eurasian Economic Union) Customs Union of the Eurasian Economic Union  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Eurasian Economic Union) Eurasian Economic Union  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_State) (Union State) Union State  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire) (Russian Empire) Russian Empire  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union) (Soviet Union) Soviet Union  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union) (Dissolution of the Soviet Union) Dissolution of the Soviet Union  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Union_Treaty) (New Union Treaty) New Union Treaty  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization) (Collective Security Treaty Organization) Collective Security Treaty Organization  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collective_Rapid_Reaction_Force) (Collective Rapid Reaction Force) Collective Rapid Reaction Force      α.1    Turkmenistan's status as an "associate member" has not been recognised by a decision of the Council of Heads of State. However, it has been consistently allowed to participate in the CIS. β.1    2    3    Moldova provided notification of its withdrawal from the 1991 agreements and the CIS Charter on 8 April 2026, and will cease being a member of the CIS on 8 April 2027. (Category) ()    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Commonwealth_of_Independent_States) (Category:Commonwealth of Independent States) Category         (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Template:Eurasian Economic Union) (View this template) v   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Template talk:Eurasian Economic Union) (Discuss this template) t   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Special:EditPage/Template:Eurasian Economic Union) (Edit this template) e     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Eurasian Economic Union) Eurasian Economic Union    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Member states of the Eurasian Economic Union) Member states  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia) (Armenia) Armenia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus) (Belarus) Belarus  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan) (Kazakhstan) Kazakhstan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan) (Kyrgyzstan) Kyrgyzstan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) Russia      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Member states of the Eurasian Economic Union) Observer members  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba) (Cuba) Cuba  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran) (Iran) Iran  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldova) (Moldova) Moldova  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan) (Uzbekistan) Uzbekistan      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enlargement_of_the_Eurasian_Economic_Union) (Enlargement of the Eurasian Economic Union) Prospective members  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran) (Iran) Iran  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia) (Mongolia) Mongolia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan) (Tajikistan) Tajikistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan) (Uzbekistan) Uzbekistan      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Eurasian_Economic_Union#Free_Trade_Zone_agreements) (Member states of the Eurasian Economic Union) Free Trade Zone agreements  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China) (China) China  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt) (Egypt) Egypt  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran) (Iran) Iran  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbia) (Serbia) Serbia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore) (Singapore) Singapore  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan) (Tajikistan) Tajikistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan) (Uzbekistan) Uzbekistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam) (Vietnam) Vietnam         (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation) (Template:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) (View this template) v   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation) (Template talk:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) (Discuss this template) t   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation) (Special:EditPage/Template:Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) (Edit this template) e     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation) (Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)    Summits (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2012_Beijing_SCO_summit) (2012 Beijing SCO summit) Beijing 2012  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Dushanbe_SCO_summit) (2014 Dushanbe SCO summit) Dushanbe 2014  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2017_Astana_SCO_summit) (2017 Astana SCO summit) Astana 2017  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Qingdao_SCO_summit) (2018 Qingdao SCO summit) Qingdao 2018  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Samarkand_SCO_summit) (2022 Samarkand SCO summit) Samarkand 2022  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Astana_SCO_summit) (2024 Astana SCO summit) Astana 2024  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Islamabad_SCO_summit) (2024 Islamabad SCO summit) Islamabad 2024  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Tianjin_SCO_summit) (2025 Tianjin SCO summit) Tianjin 2025      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation) (Member states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) Member states  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus) (Belarus) Belarus  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China) (China) China  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India) (India) India  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran) (Iran) Iran  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan) (Kazakhstan) Kazakhstan  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan) (Kyrgyzstan) Kyrgyzstan  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan) (Pakistan) Pakistan  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) Russia  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan) (Tajikistan) Tajikistan  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan) (Uzbekistan) Uzbekistan      Observer states ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan) (Afghanistan) Afghanistan  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolia) (Mongolia) Mongolia      Dialogue partners ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia) (Armenia) Armenia  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan) (Azerbaijan) Azerbaijan  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain) (Bahrain) Bahrain  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambodia) (Cambodia) Cambodia  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt) (Egypt) Egypt  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait) (Kuwait) Kuwait  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laos) (Laos) Laos  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives) (Maldives) Maldives  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar) (Myanmar) Myanmar  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal) (Nepal) Nepal  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar) (Qatar) Qatar  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia) (Saudi Arabia) Saudi Arabia  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka) (Sri Lanka) Sri Lanka  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey) (Turkey) Turkey  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates) (United Arab Emirates) United Arab Emirates      Guests (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASEAN) (ASEAN) ASEAN  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States) (Commonwealth of Independent States) Commonwealth of Independent States  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan) (Turkmenistan) Turkmenistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations) (United Nations) United Nations      Applicants ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria) (Algeria) Algeria  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh) (Bangladesh) Bangladesh  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq) (Iraq) Iraq  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel) (Israel) Israel  ()      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria) (Syria) Syria      See also (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation) (Member states of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation) Member states  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Anti-Terrorist_Structure) (Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure) Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Evils) (Three Evils) Three Evils  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCO_Interbank_Consortium) (SCO Interbank Consortium) SCO Interbank Consortium  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_Land_Bridge) (Eurasian Land Bridge) Eurasian Land Bridge  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_language) (Working language) Working languages (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language) (Chinese language) Chinese  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language) (Russian language) Russian           (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517)    (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation) (Template:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) (View this template) v   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation) (Template talk:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) (Discuss this template) t   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation) (Special:EditPage/Template:Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) (Edit this template) e     (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation) (Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)   (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation) (Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation : (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hissein_Brahim_Taha) (Hissein Brahim Taha) Hissein Brahim Taha      (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_states_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation) (Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) Member states   Members (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan) (Afghanistan) Afghanistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania) (Albania) Albania  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria) (Algeria) Algeria  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijan) (Azerbaijan) Azerbaijan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahrain) (Bahrain) Bahrain  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh) (Bangladesh) Bangladesh  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin) (Benin) Benin  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso) (Burkina Faso) Burkina Faso  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunei) (Brunei) Brunei  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon) (Cameroon) Cameroon  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad) (Chad) Chad  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comoros) (Comoros) Comoros  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djibouti) (Djibouti) Djibouti  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt) (Egypt) Egypt  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabon) (Gabon) Gabon  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gambia) (The Gambia) Gambia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea) (Guinea) Guinea  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guinea-Bissau) (Guinea-Bissau) Guinea-Bissau  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guyana) (Guyana) Guyana  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia) (Indonesia) Indonesia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran) (Iran) Iran  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq) (Iraq) Iraq  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory_Coast) (Ivory Coast) Ivory Coast  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan) (Jordan) Jordan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan) (Kazakhstan) Kazakhstan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait) (Kuwait) Kuwait  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan) (Kyrgyzstan) Kyrgyzstan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon) (Lebanon) Lebanon  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libya) (Libya) Libya  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia) (Malaysia) Malaysia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives) (Maldives) Maldives  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali) (Mali) Mali  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritania) (Mauritania) Mauritania  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco) (Morocco) Morocco  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique) (Mozambique) Mozambique  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger) (Niger) Niger  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria) (Nigeria) Nigeria  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman) (Oman) Oman  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan) (Pakistan) Pakistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine) (Palestine) Palestine  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar) (Qatar) Qatar  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia) (Saudi Arabia) Saudi Arabia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal) (Senegal) Senegal  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Leone) (Sierra Leone) Sierra Leone  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somalia) (Somalia) Somalia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan) (Sudan) Sudan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suriname) (Suriname) Suriname  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria) (Syria) Syria  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajikistan) (Tajikistan) Tajikistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Togo) (Togo) Togo  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia) (Tunisia) Tunisia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey) (Turkey) Turkey  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistan) (Turkmenistan) Turkmenistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda) (Uganda) Uganda  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uzbekistan) (Uzbekistan) Uzbekistan  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates) (United Arab Emirates) United Arab Emirates  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen) (Yemen) Yemen      Observers  Countries and territories  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina) (Bosnia and Herzegovina) Bosnia and Herzegovina  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_African_Republic) (Central African Republic) Central African Republic  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Cyprus) (Northern Cyprus) Northern Cyprus 1  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia) Russia  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand) (Thailand) Thailand      Muslim communities  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moro_National_Liberation_Front) (Moro National Liberation Front) Moro National Liberation Front      International organizations  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization) (Economic Cooperation Organization) Economic Cooperation Organization  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Union) (African Union) African Union  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_League) (Arab League) Arab League  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement) (Non-Aligned Movement) Non-Aligned Movement  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations) (United Nations) United Nations                History  Declarations (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abuja_Declaration_(1989)) (Abuja Declaration (1989)) Abuja Declaration (1989)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo_Declaration_on_Human_Rights_in_Islam) (Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam) Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OIC_Resolution_10/11) (OIC Resolution 10/11) OIC Resolution 10/11 (2008) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OIC_Council_of_Foreign_Ministers_Resolution_10/37) (OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37) OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37 (2010)          Sessions  Extraordinary (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference) (First Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference) First  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference) (Second Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference) Second  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference) (Third Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference) Third  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference) (Fourth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference) Fourth  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference) (Fifth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference) Fifth  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sixth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference) (Sixth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference) Sixth  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference) (Seventh Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference) Seventh  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference) (Eighth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference) Eighth  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Extraordinary_Session_of_the_Islamic_Summit_Conference) (Ninth Extraordinary Session of the Islamic Summit Conference) Ninth  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Arab–Islamic_extraordinary_summit) (2023 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit) Arab–Islamic (2023)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_Arab–Islamic_extraordinary_summit?action=edit&redlink=1) (2024 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit (page does not exist)) Arab–Islamic (2024)  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Arab–Islamic_extraordinary_summit) (2025 Arab–Islamic extraordinary summit) Arab–Islamic (2025)           Demographics (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation) (Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) Economy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_GDP_(PPP)) (List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by GDP (PPP)) GDP  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_GDP_per_capita_(PPP)) (List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by GDP per capita (PPP)) GDP per capita  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_exports) (List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by exports) Exports  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_imports) (List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by imports) Imports    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_states_by_population) (List of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member states by population) Population  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_in_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation_member_countries) (List of largest cities in Organisation of Islamic Cooperation member countries) Largest cities  (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_the_member_states_of_the_Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation) (Education in the member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation) Education      1 As the "Turkish Cypriot State".              (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1333133064)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1364279517)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319)  (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319)    (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control) (Help:Authority control) Authority control databases (https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q159#identifiers) (Edit this at Wikidata) (Edit this at Wikidata)       International (https://isni.org/isni/0000000123027140) ISNI   (https://viaf.org/viaf/140306806) VIAF  (https://viaf.org/viaf/168830626) 2   (https://viaf.org/viaf/1938156133207258430006) 3     (https://d-nb.info/gnd/4076899-5) GND   (https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1262050) FAST   (https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJhhmCp3jtcMQbx3WgpXVC) WorldCat       National (Russia) (https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n92056007) United States    (https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122728378) France   (https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb122728378) BnF data   (https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569699) Japan   (Rusko (federace)) (https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge130512&CON_LNG=ENG) Czech Republic   (Rusko) (https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge128566&CON_LNG=ENG) 2      (https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810637537605606) Poland   (https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007530981505171) Israel   (https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058511963406706) Catalonia       Geographic (https://musicbrainz.org/area/1f1fc3a4-9500-39b8-9f10-f0a465557eef) MusicBrainz area       Academics (https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA08132311?l=en) CiNii       Artists (http://kulturnav.org/63134098-188a-4d80-8178-5d123dbb9c2f) KulturNav       People (https://id.parliament.uk/v4fj7s0O) UK Parliament       Other (Russie (Fédération)) (https://www.idref.fr/031531156) IdRef   (Russie) (https://www.idref.fr/027342395) 2      (https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/003376) Historical Dictionary of Switzerland   (https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10044286) NARA   (https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/rusya) İslâm Ansiklopedisi   (https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/33a32d4c-5e3a-4556-8567-ce9d7fdd51a7) Yale LUX          (mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1156832818)  (https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Russia&params=66_N_94_E_scale:100000000) (Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location) 66°N 94°E    /   (Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location) 66°N 94°E  / 66; 94     (./Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas)    (./Category:Coordinates_on_Wikidata)   (./Category:Russia#%20)  (./Category:Federal_republics)  (./Category:Countries_in_Europe)  (./Category:Countries_in_Asia)  (./Category:Countries_in_Northeast_Asia)  (./Category:BRICS_nations)  (./Category:G20_members)  (./Category:Member_states_of_the_Commonwealth_of_Independent_States)  (./Category:Member_states_of_the_Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization)  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