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It is the fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million,[d] having the second-largest Muslim population in the world as of 2023. Islamabad is the nation's capital, while Karachi is its largest city and financial centre. Pakistan is the 33rd-largest country by area. Bounded by the Arabian Sea on the south, the Gulf of Oman on the southwest, and the Sir Creek on the southeast, it shares land borders with India to the east; Afghanistan to the west; Iran to the southwest; and China to the northeast. It shares a maritime border with Oman in the Gulf of Oman, and is separated from Tajikistan in the northwest by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor.\n\nPakistan is the site of several ancient cultures, including the 8,500-year-old Neolithic site of Mehrgarh in Balochistan, the Indus Valley Civilisation of the Bronze Age,[7] and the ancient Gandhara civilisation.[8] The regions that compose the modern state of Pakistan were the realm of multiple empires and dynasties, including the Achaemenid, the Maurya, the Kushan, the Gupta;[9] the Umayyad Caliphate in its southern regions, the Hindu Shahis, the Ghaznavids, the Delhi Sultanate, the Samma, the Shah Miris, the Mughals,[10] and finally, the British Raj from 1858 to 1947.\n\nSpurred by the Pakistan Movement, which sought a homeland for the Muslims of British India, and election victories in 1946 by the All-India Muslim League, Pakistan gained independence in 1947 after the partition of British India, which awarded separate statehood to its Muslim-majority regions and was accompanied by an unparalleled mass migration and loss of life.[11][12] Initially a dominion of the British Commonwealth, Pakistan adopted a republican constitution in 1956 and became an Islamic republic with two geographically separate provinces, East Pakistan and West Pakistan. East Pakistan seceded as the new country of Bangladesh in 1971 after a nine-month-long civil war. In the following four decades, Pakistan has been ruled by governments that alternated between civilian and military, democratic and authoritarian, relatively secular and Islamist.[13]\n\nPakistan is considered a middle power and is a declared nuclear-weapon state, with the world's seventh-largest standing armed forces. The Pakistani economy is ranked amongst the world's emerging and growth-leading economies,[14] with a large and rapidly growing middle class.[15][16] Pakistan's political history since independence has been characterised by periods of significant economic and military growth as well as those of political and economic instability. It is an ethnically and linguistically diverse country, with similarly diverse geography and wildlife. The country continues to face poverty, illiteracy, corruption, and terrorism.[17][18][19] Pakistan is a member of the United Nations, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Commonwealth of Nations, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, and the Islamic Military Counter-Terrorism Coalition, and is designated as a major non-NATO ally by the United States.\n\nEtymology\nThe name Pakistan was coined by Choudhry Rahmat Ali, a Pakistan Movement activist, who in January 1933 first published it (originally as \"Pakstan\") in a pamphlet Now or Never, using it as an acronym.[20][21][22] Rahmat Ali explained: \"It is composed of letters taken from the names of all our homelands, Indian and Asian, Panjab, Afghania, Kashmir, Sindh, and Baluchistan.\" He added, \"Pakistan is both a Persian and Urdu word... It means the land of the Paks, the spiritually pure and clean.\"[23] Etymologists note that \u067e\u0627\u06a9 p\u0101k, is 'pure' in Persian and Pashto and the Persian suffix \u0640\u0633\u062a\u0627\u0646 -stan means 'land' or 'place of'.[21]\n\nRahmat Ali's concept of Pakistan only related to the northwestern area of the Indian subcontinent. He also proposed the name \"Banglastan\" for the Muslim areas of Bengal and \"Osmanistan\" for Hyderabad State, as well as a political federation between the three.[24]\n\nHistory\n\n\n\nPrehistory and antiquity\n\nSome of the earliest ancient human civilisations in South Asia originated from areas encompassing present-day Pakistan.[27] The earliest known stone tools in the region, dating to the Lower Palaeolithic (~2 million years ago), were discovered in the Soan Valley of northern Pakistan.[28] The Indus plain region, which covers most of the present-day Pakistan, was the site of several successive ancient cultures including the Neolithic (7000\u20134300 BCE) site of Mehrgarh,[29][30][31] and the 5,000-year history of urban life in South Asia to the various sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation, including Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.[32][33]\n\nFollowing the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation, semi-nomadic Indo-European Aryans migrated into the Indian subcontinent around 2000 BCE, perhaps by way of the Khyber Pass. They fused with the indigenous Harappan culture of the Indus Valley, and elements of the pre-Aryan spiritual traditions were assimilated into the developing Vedic tradition.[34] This cultural milieu shaped the Gandhara Civilisation, which flourished at the crossroads of India, Central Asia, and the Middle East, connecting trade routes and absorbing cultural influences from diverse civilisations.[35] By the early Vedic period, parts of the Indus region in present-day Pakistan were populated by numerous tribes that were beginning to coalesce into chieftain-led clans and early kingdoms.[36] During this period, the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, were composed.[37][h]\n\nClassical period\nStanding Buddha from Gandhara (1st\u20132nd century CE)[38]\nThe western regions of Pakistan became part of the Achaemenid Empire around 517\u00a0BCE.[39] In 326\u00a0BCE, Alexander the Great conquered the region by defeating various local rulers, most notably, the King Porus, at Jhelum.[40] Among the major powers that ruled the region were the Mauryas (322\u2013185 BCE), during which Ashoka the Great extended the empire.[41][42] The Indo-Greek Kingdom founded by Demetrius of Bactria (180\u2013165\u00a0BCE) included Gandhara and Punjab and reached its greatest extent under Menander (165\u2013150\u00a0BCE), allowing the Greco-Buddhist culture in the region to prosper.[43][44][45] Taxila had one of the earliest universities and centres of higher education in the world, which was established during the late Vedic period in the 6th century BCE.[46] The ancient university was documented by the invading forces of Alexander the Great and recorded by Chinese pilgrims in the 4th or 5th century CE.[47][48][49] At its zenith, the Rai dynasty (489\u2013632\u00a0CE) ruled Sindh and the surrounding territories.[50]\n\nMedieval period\nMakran came under Muslim rule in the 7th century CE when it was conquered and a garrison was established under Mu'awiya I (r. 661\u2013680).[51] The Arab general Muhammad ibn Qasim conquered Sindh and some regions of Punjab in 711\u00a0CE.[52] The Pakistan government's official chronology claims this as the time when the foundation of Pakistan was laid.[53] The early medieval period (642\u20131219\u00a0CE) witnessed the spread of Islam in the region.[54] Before the arrival of Islam beginning in the 8th century, the region of Pakistan was home to a diverse plethora of faiths, including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Zoroastrianism.[55][56] During this period, Sufi missionaries played a pivotal role in converting a majority of the regional population to Islam.[57] Upon the defeat of the Turk and Hindu Shahi dynasties which governed the Kabul Valley, Gandhara, and western Punjab in the 7th to 11th centuries CE, several successive Muslim empires ruled over the region, including the Ghaznavid Empire (975\u20131187\u00a0CE), the Ghorid Empire, and the Delhi Sultanate (1206\u20131526\u00a0CE).[58] The Lodi dynasty, the last of the Delhi Sultanate, was replaced by the Mughal Empire (1526\u20131857\u00a0CE).[59]\n\nMakli Necropolis, a UNESCO World Heritage Site rose to prominence as a major funerary site during the Samma dynasty.[60]\nThe Mughals introduced Persian literature and high culture, establishing the roots of Indo-Persian culture in the region.[61] In the region of modern-day Pakistan, key cities during the Mughal period were Multan, Lahore, Peshawar and Thatta,[62] which were chosen as the site of impressive Mughal buildings.[63] In the early 16th century, the region remained under the Mughal Empire.[64] In the 18th century, the slow disintegration of the Mughal Empire was hastened by the emergence of the rival powers like the Maratha Empire and later the Sikh Empire, as well as invasions by Nader Shah from Iran in 1739,[65][66] and the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan in 1748.[67] The growing political power of the British in Bengal had not yet reached the territories of modern Pakistan.[68]\n\nColonial rule\n\n\nNone of modern Pakistan was under British rule until 1839 when Karachi, a small fishing village governed by Talpurs of Sindh with a mud fort guarding the harbour, was taken,[73][74] and used as an enclave with a port and military base for the First Afghan War that ensued.[75] The remainder of Sindh was acquired in 1843,[76] and subsequently, through a series of wars and treaties, the East India Company, and later, after the Sepoy Mutiny (1857\u20131858), direct rule by Queen Victoria of the British Empire, acquired most of the region.[77] Key conflicts included those against the Baloch Talpur dynasty, resolved by the Battle of Miani (1843) in Sindh,[78] the Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845\u20131849),[79] and the Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839\u20131919).[80] By 1893, all modern Pakistan was part of the British Indian Empire, and remained so until independence in 1947.[81]\n\nUnder British rule, modern Pakistan was primarily divided into the Sind Division, Punjab Province, and the Baluchistan Agency. The region also included various princely states, with the largest being Bahawalpur.[82][83]\n\nAn important uprising against the British in the region was the Indian Rebellion of 1857, known at the time as the Sepoy Mutiny.[84] Divergence in the relationship between Hinduism and Islam resulted in significant tension in British India, leading to religious violence. The language controversy further exacerbated tensions between Hindus and Muslims.[71][85] A Muslim intellectual movement, led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to counter the Hindu renaissance, advocated for the two-nation theory and led to the establishment of the All-India Muslim League in 1906.[69][70][71]\n\nIn March 1929, in response to the Nehru Report, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, issued his fourteen points, which included proposals to safeguard the interests of the Muslim minority in a united India. These proposals were rejected.[86][87][88] In his 29 December 1930 address, Allama Iqbal advocated the amalgamation of Muslim-majority states in North-West India, including Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind, and Baluchistan.[88][89] The perception that Congress-led British provincial governments neglected the Muslim League from 1937 to 1939 motivated Jinnah and other Muslim League leaders to embrace the two-nation theory.[90][91] This led to the adoption of the Lahore Resolution of 1940, presented by Sher-e-Bangla A.K. Fazlul Haque, also known as the Pakistan Resolution.[92]\n\nBy 1942, Britain faced considerable strain during World War II, with India directly threatened by Japanese forces. Britain had pledged voluntary independence for India in exchange for support during the war. However, this pledge included a clause stating that no part of British India would be compelled to join the resulting dominion, which could be interpreted as support for an independent Muslim nation. Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement, demanding an immediate end to British rule. In contrast, the Muslim League chose to support the UK's war efforts, thereby nurturing the possibility of establishing a Muslim nation.[93][94]\n\nIndependence\n\n\nThe partition of India: green regions were all part of Pakistan by 1948, and orange ones part of India. The darker-shaded regions represent the Punjab and Bengal provinces partitioned by the Radcliffe Line. The grey areas represent some of the key princely states that were eventually integrated into India or Pakistan.\nThe 1946 elections saw the Muslim League secure 90 percent of the Muslim seats, supported by the landowners of Sindh and Punjab. This forced the Indian National Congress, initially skeptical of the League's representation of Indian Muslims, to acknowledge its significance.[95] Jinnah's emergence as the voice of the Indian Muslims,[53] compelled the British to consider their stance, despite their reluctance to partition India. In a final attempt to prevent partition, they proposed the Cabinet Mission Plan.[96]\n\nAs the Cabinet Mission failed, the British announced their intention to end rule by June 1948.[97][98] Following rigorous discussions involving Viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatten of Burma, Muhammad Ali Jinnah of the All-India Muslim League, and Jawaharlal Nehru of Congress, the formal declaration to partition British India into two independent dominions\u2014namely Pakistan and India\u2014was issued by Mountbatten on the evening of 3 June 1947. In Mountbatten's oval office, the prime ministers of around a dozen major princely states gathered to receive their copies of the plan before its worldwide broadcast. At 7:00 P.M., All India Radio transmitted the public announcement, starting with the viceroy's address, followed by individual speeches from Nehru, and Jinnah. The founder of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah concluded his address with the slogan Pakistan Zindabad (Long Live Pakistan).[99]\n\nAs the United Kingdom agreed to the partitioning of India,[99] the modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27th of Ramadan in 1366 of the Islamic calendar, a holy time regarded as auspicious and noted for its religious importance).[100][101] This new nation amalgamated the Muslim-majority eastern and northwestern regions of British India, comprising the provinces of Balochistan, East Bengal, the North-West Frontier Province, West Punjab, and Sindh.[102]\n\nIn the riots that accompanied the partition in Punjab Province, between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in what some have described as a retributive genocide between the religions.[103] Around 50,000 Muslim women were abducted and raped by Hindu and Sikh men, while 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women experienced the same fate at the hands of Muslims.[104] Around 6.5 million Muslims moved from India to West Pakistan and 4.7 million Hindus and Sikhs moved from West Pakistan to India.[105] It was the largest mass migration in human history.[106] A subsequent dispute over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir eventually sparked the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947\u20131948.[107]\n\nPost-independence\n\nLiaquat Ali Khan was elected the first prime minister of Pakistan.[108][109]\nAfter independence in 1947, Jinnah, the president of the Muslim League, became Pakistan's first governor-general and the first President-Speaker of the Parliament, but he died of tuberculosis on 11 September 1948.[109][110] Meanwhile, Pakistan's founding fathers agreed to appoint Liaquat Ali Khan, the secretary-general of the party, the nation's first prime minister.[108][109] From 1947 to 1956, Pakistan was a monarchy within the Commonwealth of Nations, and had two monarchs before it became a republic.[111]\n\nThe creation of Pakistan was never fully accepted by many British leaders, including Lord Mountbatten.[112] Mountbatten expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League's idea of Pakistan.[113] Jinnah refused Mountbatten's offer to serve as Governor-General of Pakistan.[114] When Mountbatten was asked by Collins and Lapierre if he would have sabotaged Pakistan had he known that Jinnah was dying of tuberculosis, he replied 'most probably'.[115]\nThe American CIA film on Pakistan, made in 1950, examines the history and geography of Pakistan.\n\n\n\n\"You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan. You may belong to any religion or caste or creed\u00a0\u2013 that has nothing to do with the business of the State.\"\n\n\n\nMaulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, a respected Deobandi alim (scholar) who held the position of Shaykh al-Islam in Pakistan in 1949, and Maulana Mawdudi of Jamaat-i-Islami played key roles in advocating for an Islamic constitution. Mawdudi insisted that the Constituent Assembly declare the \"supreme sovereignty of God\" and the supremacy of the shariah in Pakistan.[117]\n\nThe efforts of Jamaat-i-Islami and the ulama led to the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949. This resolution, described by Liaquat Ali Khan as the second most significant step in Pakistan's history, affirmed that \"sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust\". It was later included as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.[118]\n\nDemocracy faced setbacks due to the martial law imposed by President Iskander Mirza, who was succeeded by General Ayub Khan. After adopting a presidential system in 1962, Pakistan witnessed significant growth until the second war with India in 1965, resulting in an economic downturn and widespread public discontent in 1967.[119][120] In 1969, President Yahya Khan consolidated control, but faced a devastating cyclone in East Pakistan resulting in 500,000 deaths.[121]\n\nIn 1970, Pakistan conducted its first democratic elections since independence, intending to transition from military rule to democracy. However, after the East Pakistani Awami League emerged victorious over the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP), Yahya Khan and the military refused to transfer power.[122] This led to Operation Searchlight, a military crackdown, and eventually sparked the war of liberation by Bengali Mukti Bahini forces in East Pakistan,[123] described in West Pakistan as a civil war rather than a liberation struggle.[124]\n\nSigning of the Tashkent Declaration to end hostilities with India in 1965 in Tashkent, USSR, by President Ayub alongside Bhutto (centre) and Aziz Ahmed (left)[125]\n\nIndependent researchers estimate that between 300,000 and 500,000 civilians died during this period while the Bangladesh government puts the number of dead at three million,[126] a figure now nearly universally regarded as excessively inflated.[127] Some academics such as Rudolph Rummel and Rounaq Jahan say both sides committed genocide;[128] others such as Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose believe there was no genocide.[129] In response to India's support for the insurgency in East Pakistan, preemptive strikes on India by Pakistan's air force, navy, and marines sparked a conventional war in 1971 that resulted in an Indian victory and East Pakistan gaining independence as Bangladesh.[130]\n\nYahya Khan was replaced by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as president; the country worked towards promulgating its constitution and putting the country on the road to democracy.[131][132] In 1972 Pakistan embarked on an ambitious plan to develop its nuclear deterrence capability with the goal of preventing any foreign invasion; the country's first nuclear power plant was inaugurated in that same year.[133][134] India's first nuclear test in 1974 gave Pakistan additional justification to accelerate its nuclear program.[134]\n\nDemocracy ended with a military coup in 1977 against the leftist PPP, which saw General Zia-ul-Haq become the president in 1978.[135] From 1977 to 1988, President Zia's corporatisation and economic Islamisation initiatives led to Pakistan becoming one of the fastest-growing economies in South Asia.[136] While building up the country's nuclear program, increasing Islamisation, and the rise of a homegrown conservative philosophy, Pakistan helped subsidise and distribute US resources to factions of the mujahideen against the USSR's intervention in communist Afghanistan.[137][138][139] Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province became a base for the anti-Soviet Afghan fighters, with the province's influential Deobandi ulama playing a significant role in encouraging and organising the 'jihad'.[140]\n\nPresident Zia died in a plane crash in 1988, and Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the country's first female Prime Minister. The PPP was followed by conservative Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML (N)), and over the next decade the leaders of the two parties fought for power, alternating in office.[141] This period is marked by prolonged stagflation, political instability, corruption, misgovernment, geopolitical rivalry with India, and the clash between left-wing and right-wing ideologies.[142][143] As PML (N) secured a supermajority in elections in 1997,[144] Nawaz Sharif authorised nuclear testings, as a retaliation to the second nuclear tests conducted by India in May 1998.[145]\n\nPresident Musharraf meets with Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee in Islamabad at the sidelines of the 12th SAARC summit in 2004.[146]\n\nMilitary tension between the two countries in the Kargil district led to the Kargil War of 1999,[147][148] and turmoil in civil-military relations allowed General Pervez Musharraf to take over through a bloodless coup d'\u00e9tat.[149] Musharraf governed Pakistan as chief executive from 1999 to 2002 and as president from 2001 to 2008[150]\u2014a period of enlightenment,[151][152] social liberalism,[153] extensive economic reforms,[154] and direct involvement in the US-led war on terrorism.[152] By its own financial calculations, Pakistan's involvement in the war on terrorism has cost up to $118\u00a0billion, over eighty one thousand casualties,[155] and more than 1.8\u00a0million displaced civilians.[156]\n\nThe National Assembly historically completed its first full five-year term on 15 November 2007.[157] After the assassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007, the PPP secured the most votes in the elections of 2008, appointing party member Yusuf Raza Gilani as Prime Minister.[158] Threatened with impeachment, President Musharraf resigned on 18 August 2008, and was succeeded by Asif Ali Zardari.[159] Clashes with the judicature prompted Gilani's disqualification from the Parliament and as the prime minister in June 2012.[160] The general election held in 2013 saw the PML (N) achieve victory,[161] following which Nawaz Sharif was elected as Prime Minister for the third time.[162] In 2018, PTI won the general election and Imran Khan became the 22nd Prime Minister.[163] In April 2022, Shehbaz Sharif was elected as prime minister, after Imran Khan lost a no-confidence vote.[164] During 2024 general election, PTI-backed independents became the largest bloc,[165] but Shehbaz Sharif was elected prime minister for a second term, as a result of a coalition between PML (N) and PPPP.[166]\n\n\nGeography\n\nK\u00f6ppen climate classification of Pakistan\nPakistan's diverse geography and climate host a wide array of wildlife.[167] Covering 881,913\u00a0km2 (340,509\u00a0sq\u00a0mi),[168] Pakistan ranks as the 33rd-largest nation by total area,[169] but this varies based on Kashmir's disputed status. Pakistan boasts a 1,046\u00a0km (650\u00a0mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman,[170][171] and shares land borders totalling 6,774\u00a0km (4,209\u00a0mi), including 2,430\u00a0km (1,510\u00a0mi) with Afghanistan, 523\u00a0km (325\u00a0mi) with China, 2,912\u00a0km (1,809\u00a0mi) with India, and 909\u00a0km (565\u00a0mi) with Iran.[172] It has a maritime border with Oman[173] and is separated from Tajikistan via the narrow strip of the Wakhan Corridor.[174] Situated at the crossroads of South Asia, the Middle East, and Central Asia,[175] Pakistan's location is geopolitically significant.[176] Geologically, Pakistan lies at the interaction of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates within the Indus\u2013Tsangpo Suture Zone, a region of high seismic activity. The collision between these two plates occurs in northwest Pakistan, particularly in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Sindh and Punjab are located on the north-western corner of the Indian Plate, while Balochistan and much of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa lie along its north-western margin. Northern areas of Pakistan, including Azad Kashmir, lie along the northern edge of the Indian Plate and are prone to powerful earthquakes.[177]\n\nA satellite image showing the topography of Pakistan[178]\nPakistan's landscapes vary from coastal plains to glaciated mountains, offering deserts, forests, hills, and plateaus.[179] Pakistan is divided into three major geographic areas: the northern highlands, the Indus River plain, and the Balochistan Plateau.[180] The northern highlands feature the Karakoram, Hindu Kush, and Pamir mountain ranges, hosting some of the world's highest peaks, including five of the fourteen eight-thousanders (mountain peaks over 8,000 metres or 26,250 feet), notably K2 (8,611\u00a0m or 28,251\u00a0ft) and Nanga Parbat (8,126\u00a0m or 26,660\u00a0ft).[181][182] The Balochistan Plateau lies in the west and the Thar Desert in the east.[183][184][185] The 1,609\u00a0km (1,000\u00a0mi) Indus River and its tributaries traverse the nation from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea, sustaining alluvial plains along the Punjab and Sindh regions.[186]\n\nThe climate varies from tropical to temperate, with arid conditions in the coastal south. There is a monsoon season with frequent flooding due to heavy rainfall, and a dry season with significantly less rainfall or none at all.[187] Pakistan experiences four distinct seasons: a cool, dry winter from December through February; a hot, dry spring from March through May; the summer rainy season, or southwest monsoon period, from June through September; and the retreating monsoon period of October and November.[188] Rainfall varies greatly from year to year, with patterns of alternate flooding and drought common.[189]\n\nFlora and fauna\n\nThe diverse landscape and climate in Pakistan support a wide range of trees and plants.[190] From coniferous alpine and subalpine trees like spruce, pine, and deodar cedar in the northern mountains to deciduous trees like shisham in the Sulaiman Mountains,[187] and palms such as coconut and date in the southern regions.[191][192] The western hills boast juniper, tamarisk, coarse grasses, and scrub plants.[193] Mangrove forests dominate the coastal wetlands in the south.[194] Coniferous forests span altitudes from 1,000 to 4,000 metres (3,300 to 13,100 feet) in most northern and northwestern highlands.[195] In Balochistan's xeric regions, date palms and Ephedra are prevalent.[191][196] In Punjab and Sindh's Indus plains, tropical and subtropical dry and moist broadleaf forests as well as tropical and xeric shrublands thrive.[197] Approximately 4.8% or 36,845.6 square kilometres (3,684,560\u00a0ha) of Pakistan was forested in 2021.[198][i]\n\nMarkhor is the national animal of Pakistan.[199]\n\nPakistan's fauna mirrors its diverse climate. The country boasts around 668 bird species,[200] including crows, sparrows, mynas, hawks, falcons, and eagles. Palas, Kohistan, is home to the western tragopan, with many migratory birds visiting from Europe, Central Asia, and India.[201] The southern plains harbor mongooses,[202] small Indian civet,[203] hares,[204] the Asiatic jackal,[205] the Indian pangolin,[206] the jungle cat,[207] and the sand cat.[208] Indus is home to mugger crocodiles,[209] while surrounding areas host wild boars,[210] deer,[211] and porcupines.[212] Central Pakistan's sandy scrublands shelter Asiatic jackals,[205] striped hyenas,[213] wildcats, and leopards. The mountainous north hosts a variety of animals like the Marco Polo sheep,[214] urial, markhor goat, ibex goat, Asian black bear, and Himalayan brown bear.[187]\n\nThe lack of vegetative cover, severe climate, and grazing impact on deserts have endangered wild animals.[215] The chinkara is the only animal found in significant numbers in Cholistan,[216] with a few nilgai along the Pakistan\u2013India border and in some parts of Cholistan.[217] Rare animals include the snow leopard and the blind Indus river dolphin,[187] of which there are believed to be about 1,816 remaining, protected at the Indus Dolphin Reserve in Sindh.[218] In total, 174 species of mammals, 177 species of reptiles, 22 species of amphibians, 198 species of freshwater fish, 668 species of birds, over 5,000 species of insects, and over 5,700 species of plants have been recorded in Pakistan.[200] Pakistan faces deforestation, hunting, and pollution, with a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.42/10, ranking 41st globally out of 172 countries.[219]\n\nGovernment and politics\n\nParliament House\nPakistan operates as a democratic parliamentary federal republic, with Islam designated as the state religion.[220][221] The military's influence in mainstream politics has been significant throughout Pakistan's history.[222] Initially adopting a constitution in 1956, Pakistan saw it suspended by Ayub Khan in 1958, replaced by a second constitution in 1962.[223] Under the leadership of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, the 1973 constitution established a parliamentary system, but it was suspended under Zia-ul-Haq's martial law in 1977 and restored, with amendments, in 1985.[224] The eras of 1958\u20131971, 1977\u20131988, and 1999\u20132008 witnessed military coups, leading to martial law and military leaders governing de facto as presidents.[225] Presently, Pakistan operates a multi-party parliamentary system,[226] with distinct checks and balances among government branches.[227] The first successful democratic transition occurred in May 2013.[228] Pakistani politics revolves around a blend of socialism, conservatism, and the third way,[229] with the three main political parties being the conservative Pakistan Muslim League (N), socialist Pakistani People's Party, and centrist Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf.[230] Constitutional amendments in 2010 curtailed presidential powers, enhancing the role of the prime minister.[231]\nHead of State: The ceremonial head of the state and civilian commander-in-chief of the Pakistan Armed Forces is the President, elected by an Electoral College.[230] The prime minister advises the president on key appointments, including military and judicial positions, and the president is constitutionally bound to act on this advice.[232][233] The president also holds powers to pardon and grant clemency.[234]\nLegislative: The bicameral legislature includes a 96-member Senate (upper house) and a 336-member National Assembly (lower house). National Assembly members are elected via first-past-the-post under universal adult suffrage, representing National Assembly constituencies. The constitution reserves 70 seats for women and religious minorities, allocated to political parties based on proportional representation. Senate members are elected by provincial legislators, ensuring equal representation across all provinces.[235]\n\nPrime Minister's Office\n\nExecutive: The prime minister, typically the leader of the majority rule party or coalition in the National Assembly (the lower house),[236] serves as the country's chief executive and head of government. Responsibilities include forming a cabinet,[237] making executive decisions,[232] and appointing senior civil servants, subject to executive confirmation.[238]\nProvincial governments: Each of the four provinces follows a similar governance system, with a directly elected Provincial Assembly choosing the Chief Minister, usually from the largest party or coalition. Chief Ministers lead the provincial cabinet and oversee provincial governance.[239][240] The Chief Secretary, appointed by the prime minister, heads the provincial bureaucracy.[241] Provincial assemblies legislate and approve the provincial budget, typically presented by the provincial finance minister annually.[240][242] Ceremonial heads of provinces, the Provincial Governors, are appointed by the president based on the binding advice of the prime minister.[239][243]\n\nSupreme Court of Pakistan\n\nJudicature: The judiciary in Pakistan has two classes: the superior and subordinate judiciary. The superior judiciary includes the Supreme Court of Pakistan,[244] Federal Shariat Court, and five high courts,[245] with the Supreme Court at the top. It's responsible for safeguarding the constitution.[244] Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan have their own court systems.[246][247]\n\nRole of Islam\n\nPakistan, the only country established in the name of Islam,[248] had overwhelming support among Muslims, especially in provinces like the United Provinces, where Muslims were a minority.[249] This idea, articulated by the Muslim League, the Islamic clergy, and Jinnah, envisioned an Islamic state.[250] Jinnah, closely associated with the ulama, was described upon his death by Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani as the greatest Muslim after Aurangzeb, aspiring to unite Muslims worldwide under Islam.[251]\n\nThe Objectives Resolution of March 1949 marked the initial step towards this goal, affirming God as the sole sovereign.[118][252] Muslim League leader Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman asserted that Pakistan could only truly become an Islamic state after bringing all believers of Islam into a single political unit.[253] Keith Callard observed that Pakistanis believed in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world, expecting similar views on religion and nationality from Muslims worldwide.[254]\n\nEid prayers at the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore\n\nPakistan's desire for a united Islamic bloc, called Islamistan, wasn't supported by other Muslim governments,[255] though figures like the Grand Mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of the Muslim Brotherhood were drawn to the country. Pakistan's desire for an international organisation of Muslim countries was fulfilled in the 1970s when the Organisation of Islamic Conference (OIC) was formed.[256] In East Pakistan, Bengali Muslims increasingly prioritised Bengali ethno-nationalism over religious nationalism.[257] The Islamist party Jamaat-e-Islami backed an Islamic state and opposed Bengali nationalism.[258]\n\nAfter the 1970 general elections, the Parliament crafted the 1973 Constitution.[259] It declared Pakistan an Islamic Republic, with Islam as the state religion, and mandated laws to comply with Islamic teachings laid down in the Quran and Sunnah and that no law repugnant to such injunctions could be enacted.[260] Additionally, it established institutions like the Shariat Court and the Council of Islamic Ideology to interpret and apply Islam.[261]\n\nZulfikar Ali Bhutto faced opposition under the banner of Nizam-e-Mustafa (\"Rule of the Prophet\"),[262] advocating an Islamic state. Bhutto conceded to some Islamist demands before being ousted in a coup.[263]\n\nGeneral Zia-ul-Haq, after seizing power, committed to establishing an Islamic state and enforcing sharia law.[263] He instituted Shariat judicial courts,[264] and court benches,[265][266] to adjudicate using Islamic doctrine.[267] Zia aligned with Deobandi institutions,[268] exacerbating sectarian tensions with anti-Shia policies.[269]\n\nMost Pakistanis, according to a Pew Research Center (PEW) poll, favour Sharia law as the official law,[270] and 94 percent of them identify more with religion than nationality compared to Muslims in other nations.[271]\n\nAdministrative units\n\n\n\nAdministrative unit[272]\nCapital[273][274][275]\nPopulation[276][277][278]\n\n BalochistanQuetta14,894,402\n\n\u00a0PunjabLahore127,688,922\n\n SindhKarachi55,696,147\n\n Khyber PakhtunkhwaPeshawar40,856,097\n\nGilgit-BaltistanGilgit1,492,924\n\n Azad KashmirMuzaffarabad4,179,428\n\nIslamabad Capital TerritoryIslamabad2,363,863\n\n\nPakistan, a federal parliamentary republic, consists of four provinces: Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, and Balochistan, along with three territories: Islamabad Capital Territory, Gilgit-Baltistan, and Azad Kashmir.[279] The Government of Pakistan governs the western parts of the Kashmir Region, organised into separate political entities, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan.[280] In 2009, the constitutional assignment (the Gilgit\u2013Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order) granted Gilgit-Baltistan semi-provincial status, providing it with self-government.[281]\n\nThe local government system consists of districts, tehsils, and union councils, with an elected body at each tier.[282]\n\nClickable map of the four provinces and three federal territories of Pakistan.\nA clickable map of Pakistan exhibiting its administrative units.\n\n\nForeign relations\n\n\nSince independence, Pakistan has aimed to maintain an independent foreign policy.[283] Pakistan's foreign policy and geostrategy focus on the economy, security, national identity, and territorial integrity, as well as building close ties with other Muslim nations.[284] According to foreign policy expert Hasan Askari Rizvi, \"Pakistan highlights sovereign equality of states, bilateralism, mutuality of interests, and non-interference in each other's domestic affairs as the cardinal features of its foreign policy.\"[285]\nPresident Ayub Khan meeting with U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1961[286]\nThe Kashmir conflict remains a major issue between Pakistan and India, with three of their four wars fought over it.[287] Due partly to strained relations with India, Pakistan has close ties with Turkey and Iran, both focal points in its foreign policy.[288] Saudi Arabia also holds importance in Pakistan's foreign relations.[289]\n\nAs a non-signatory of the Treaty on Nuclear Non-Proliferation, Pakistan holds influence in the IAEA.[290] For years, Pakistan has blocked an international treaty to limit fissile material, arguing that its stockpile does not meet its long-term needs.[291] Pakistan's nuclear program in the 20th century aimed to counter India's nuclear ambitions in the region, and reciprocal nuclear tests ensued after India's nuclear tests, solidifying Pakistan as a nuclear power.[292] Pakistan maintains a policy of Full spectrum deterrence, considering its nuclear program vital for deterring foreign aggression.[293]\n\nPrime Minister Shehbaz Sharif at the 2022 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit[294]\n\nLocated strategically in the world's major maritime oil supply lines and communication fiber optic corridors, Pakistan also enjoys proximity to the natural resources of Central Asian countries.[295] Pakistan actively participates in the United Nations with a Permanent Representative representing its positions in international politics.[296] It has advocated for the concept of \"enlightened moderation\" in the Muslim world.[297] Pakistan is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, SAARC, ECO,[298][299] and the G20 developing nations.[300]\n\nPakistan is designated as an \"Iron Brother\" by China, emphasising the significance of their close and supportive relationship.[301] In the 1950s, Pakistan opposed the Soviet Union for geopolitical reasons. During the Soviet\u2013Afghan War in the 1980s, it was a close ally of the United States.[285] Relations with Russia have improved since the end of the Cold War,[302] but Pakistan's relationship with the United States has been \"on-and-off\".[285] Initially a close ally during the Cold War,[303] Pakistan's relations with the US soured in the 1990s due to sanctions over its secretive nuclear program.[304] Since 9/11, Pakistan has been a US ally on counterterrorism, but their relationship has been strained due to diverging interests and mistrust during the 20-year war and terrorism issues. Although Pakistan was granted major non-NATO ally status by the U.S. in 2004,[305] it faced accusations of supporting the Taliban insurgents in Afghanistan.[306]\n\nPakistan does not have formal diplomatic relations with Israel; nonetheless, an exchange occurred between the two countries in 2005, with Turkey acting as an intermediary.[307]\n\nRelations with China\n\nPakistani Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy with Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai signing the Treaty of Friendship Between China and Pakistan.[308] Pakistan is host to China's largest embassy.[309]\n\nPakistan was among the first nations to establish formal diplomatic ties with China,[310] forging a strong relationship since China's 1962 conflict with India, culminating in a special bond.[311] During the 1970s, Pakistan acted as an intermediary in U.S.-China rapprochement,[312] facilitating US President Richard Nixon's historic visit to China.[313][314] Despite changes in Pakistani governance and regional/global dynamics, China's influence in Pakistan remains paramount.[312] In reciprocation, China stands as Pakistan's largest trading partner, with substantial investment in Pakistani infrastructure, notably the Gwadar port.[315] In 2015 alone, they inked 51 agreements and Memorandums of Understanding (MoUs) for cooperative efforts.[316] Both nations signed a Free Trade Agreement in 2006,[317] with China making its largest investment in Pakistan's history through CPEC.[318] Pakistan acts as China's liaison to the Muslim world,[319] and both nations support each other on sensitive issues like Kashmir, Taiwan, Xinjiang, and more.[320]\n\nRelations with the Muslim world\nPakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto with leaders from Algeria, Bangladesh, and Saudi Arabia in Lahore, February 1974. That year, Pakistan hosted 36 Muslim countries at the Second Islamic Summit of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.\nAfter Independence, Pakistan vigorously pursued bilateral relations with other Muslim countries.[321] The Ali brothers sought to project Pakistan as the natural leader of the Islamic world, partly due to its significant manpower and military strength.[322] Khaliquzzaman, a prominent Muslim League leader, declared Pakistan's ambition to unite all Muslim countries into Islamistan, a pan-Islamic entity.[323]\n\nThese developments, alongside Pakistan's creation, didn't receive approval from the United States, with British Prime Minister Clement Attlee expressing a hope for India and Pakistan to reunite.[324] However, due to a nationalist awakening in the Arab world at that time, there was little interest in Pakistan's Pan-Islamic aspirations.[325] Some Arab countries perceived the 'Islamistan' project as Pakistan's bid to dominate other Muslim states.[326]\n\nPakistan's founder, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, consistently advocated for the Palestinian cause, shaping Pakistan's foreign policy to support Palestinian rights within the broader framework of Muslim solidarity.[327] During the 1967 Arab-Israel war, Pakistan supported the Arab states and played a key role in securing Iran's backing for the Arab cause both within the U.N. and beyond.[328]\n\nPakistan's relations with Iran have been strained by sectarian tensions,[329] with both Iran and Saudi Arabia using Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy sectarian war.[330] Since the early days of the Iran\u2013Iraq war, President Zia-ul-Haq played an important mediatory role, with Pakistan actively engaging in efforts to end the conflict.[331][332] Pakistan provided support to Saudi Arabia during the Gulf War.[333] Pakistan chose to remain neutral during Operation Decisive Storm, refraining from sending military support to Saudi Arabia in its offensive against Yemen. Instead, Pakistan aimed to play a proactive diplomatic role in resolving the crisis,[334] which led to tensions between the two countries.[333] In 2016, Pakistan mediated between Saudi Arabia and Iran following the execution of Shia cleric Nimr al-Nimr, with visits to both countries by then Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and the Chief of Army Staff, Raheel Sharif.[335]\n\nPakistan provided refuge to millions of displaced Afghans after the Soviet invasion and supported the Afghan mujahideen in their efforts to expel Soviet forces from Afghanistan.[336] After the Soviets withdrew, infighting erupted among Mujahideen factions over control of Afghanistan. Pakistan facilitated peace talks to help end the conflict.[337] After four years of unresolved conflict between rival Mujahideen groups, Pakistan helped establish the Taliban as a stabilising force.[338] Pakistan's support for the Sunni Taliban in Afghanistan challenged Shia-led Iran, which opposed a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.[330]\n\nPakistan vigorously advocated for self-determination among Muslims globally. Its efforts in supporting independence movements in countries like Indonesia, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, and Eritrea fostered strong ties.[339] Due to its support for Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Pakistan has not established diplomatic relations with Armenia.[340][341]\n\nPakistan and Bangladesh have experienced strained relations, particularly under the Awami League governments led by Sheikh Hasina, driven by her pro-India stance and historical grievances.[342]\n\nPakistan, a prominent member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), prioritises maintaining cultural, political, social, and economic relations with Arab and other Muslim-majority nations in its foreign policy.[343]\n\nIn September 2025, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia signed a Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement under which any aggression against one country is considered an aggression against both, formalising a defensive commitment that also extends Pakistan's nuclear umbrella to Saudi Arabia.[344]\n\nKashmir conflict\n\nThe areas shown in green are the Pakistani-controlled areas.[345]\nKashmir, a Himalayan region at the northern tip of the Indian subcontinent, was governed as the autonomous princely state of Jammu and Kashmir during the British Raj before the Partition of India in August 1947. This sparked a major territorial dispute between India and Pakistan, resulting in several conflicts over the region. India controls about 45.1% of Kashmir, including Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, while Pakistan controls roughly 38.2%, comprising Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit\u2212Baltistan. Additionally, about 20% of the region, known as Aksai Chin and the Shaksgam Valley, is under Chinese control.[346] India claims the entire Kashmir region based on the Instrument of Accession signed by the princely state's ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh,[347] while Pakistan argues for its Muslim-majority population,[348] and geographical proximity to Pakistan.[349] The United Nations was involved in resolving the conflict, leading to a ceasefire in 1949 and the establishment of the Line of Control (LoC) as a de facto border.[350] India, fearing Kashmir's secession, did not hold the promised plebiscite, as it believed Kashmiris would vote to join Pakistan.[351]\n\nPakistan claims that its position is for the right of the Kashmiri people to determine their future through impartial elections as mandated by the United Nations, while India has stated that Kashmir is an \"integral part\" of India, referring to the 1972 Simla Agreement and to the fact that regional elections take place regularly.[352] Certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.[353]\n\n\nMilitary\n\nPakistan Air Force's JF-17 Thunder flying in front of the 8,130-metre-high (26,660-foot) Nanga Parbat\n\nPakistan is considered a middle power nation,[354][j] with the world's seventh-largest standing armed forces in terms of personnel size, comprising approximately 660,000 active-duty troops and 291,000 paramilitary personnel as of 2024.[355] Established in 1947, the armed forces of Pakistan wielded significant influence over national politics.[356] The main branches include the Army, Navy, and Air Force, supported by numerous paramilitaries.[357]\n\nThe Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) is the highest-ranking military officer, advising the civilian government. However, they lack direct command over the branches and serve as intermediaries, ensuring communication between the military and civilian leadership. Overseeing the Joint Staff Headquarters, they coordinate inter-service cooperation and joint military missions.[358]\n\nCommand and control over Pakistan's strategic arsenal development and employment is vested in the National Command Authority, overseeing work on nuclear doctrine to maintain Full spectrum deterrence.[145]\n\nThe United States, Turkey, and China maintain close military relations with Pakistan Armed Forces, regularly exporting military equipment and technology transfer.[359] Pakistan was the 5th-largest recipient and importer of arms between 2019 and 2023.[360]\n\nMilitary history\n\nSince 1947, Pakistan has been involved in four conventional wars with India.[361] The first conflict took place in Kashmir and ended in a United Nations-mediated ceasefire, with Pakistan gaining control of one-third of the region.[362] Territorial disputes led to another war in 1965. In 1971, India and Pakistan fought another war over East Pakistan, with Indian forces aiding its independence, leading to the creation of Bangladesh.[363] Tensions in Kargil brought the two countries to the brink of war.[364]\n\nPakistan's primary intelligence agency, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), was established within a year of Pakistan's independence in 1947.[365] During the Soviet\u2013Afghan War, Pakistan's intelligence community, mostly the ISI, coordinated US resources to support Afghan mujahideen and foreign fighters against Soviet presence.[366] The PAF engaged with Soviet and Afghan Air Forces during the conflict.[367] Pakistan has been an active participant in UN peacekeeping missions,[368] playing a major role in operations like the rescue mission in Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1993.[369] According to a 2023 UN report, the Pakistani military was the fifth largest troop contributor to UN peacekeeping missions.[370]\n\nPakistan has deployed its military in some Arab countries, providing defense, training, and advisory roles.[371][372] The PAF's fighter pilots participated in missions against Israel during the Six-Day War and the Yom Kippur War.[373] Pakistani special forces assisted Saudi forces in Mecca during the Grand Mosque Seizure.[374] Pakistan also sent 5,000 troops as part of a US-led coalition for the defense of Saudi Arabia during the Gulf War.[375]\n\nDespite the UN arms embargo on Bosnia, the ISI under General Javed Nasir airlifted anti-tank weapons and missiles to Bosnian mujahideen, shifting the tide in favour of Bosnian Muslims. ISI, under Nasir's leadership, supported Chinese Muslims in Xinjiang, rebel groups in the Philippines, and religious groups in Central Asia.[376][377]\n\nSince 2001, the Pakistan military has been engaged in counterinsurgency and internal security operations in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, primarily targeting Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan and associated militant groups. Major military operations conducted during this period include Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation al-Mizan, Operation Zalzala, Operation Sherdil, Operation Rah-e-Haq, Operation Rah-e-Rast, and Operation Rah-e-Nijat.[378]\n\nLaw enforcement\n\n\nLaw enforcement in Pakistan consists of federal and provincial police agencies. Each of the four provinces (Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Balochistan) has its own police force, while the Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT) has the Islamabad Police.[379] Provincial police forces are led by an Inspector-General of Police (IGP), who is appointed from the federally recruited and trained Police Service of Pakistan (PSP) through a consultative process between the federal and provincial governments. All positions above the Assistant Superintendent level are filled from the PSP, ensuring national standards across provincial forces.[380]\n\nSpecialised Units:\n\nNational Highways & Motorway Police (NHMP): Enforces traffic laws and ensures safety on Pakistan's inter-provincial motorway network.[381]\nSpecialised Rapid Response Units: Specialised counter-terrorism units, such as the Punjab Elite Police Force, have been trained by army commandos and exist in every province to respond to hostage situations and neutralise armed groups.[382]\n\nThe Civil Armed Forces (CAF) assist local law enforcement agencies and participate in border security and internal security operations, particularly in conflict-affected regions.[383]\n\nIn 2021, the National Intelligence Coordination Committee was established to improve coordination among Pakistan's intelligence agencies. The inaugural meeting was attended by the heads of the ISI, IB, and FIA.[384]\n\nCrime\n\nAccording to the 2025 Global Organized Crime Index, Pakistan had a criminality score of 6.32 out of 10, ranking 45th among 193 countries, and a resilience score ranking 131st among 193 countries, with the latter measuring the country's capacity to withstand and respond to organized crime.[385]\n\nAccording to the Federal Investigation Agency's annual report, the agency received more than 73,000 cybercrime complaints in 2024, of which 1,604 were registered as cases, with financial fraud accounting for nearly half of all complaints. In 2025, the National Cyber Crimes Investigation Agency estimated that cybercrime had increased by about 35% compared with the previous year. A 2025 survey conducted on behalf of Visa Inc. found that 55% of respondents in Pakistan had fallen victim to an online scam in 2024, while 20% reported having been victims more than once.[386]\n\nPakistan scored 27 out of 100 on the Corruption Perceptions Index in 2024, ranking 135th out of 180 countries in the assessment of perceived public-sector corruption.[387]\n\nHuman rights\n\nIn Pakistan, all sexual activity outside of marriage is illegal.[388] The punishment for sex outside marriage (zina) ranges from up to five years' imprisonment for minors to 100 lashes for unmarried adults and stoning to death for married adults, depending on marital status, age, sanity, and whether strict evidentiary requirements for a hadd punishment\u2014such as four adult male Muslim witnesses or a confession\u2014are met; however, no one has been stoned to death under the law to date.[389] Male homosexuality is illegal in Pakistan and is punishable by up to ten years in prison, corporal punishment such as whipping, and, under Islamic law since 1990, potentially even stoning.[390]\n\nHonour killings, locally referred to as karo-kari in parts of Pakistan, involve the killing of women and, less frequently, men by family or community members over alleged extramarital relationships or perceived violations of honour. Human rights organisations report that hundreds of women are killed each year, with many cases unreported.[391] Pakistan also has a high number of reported acid attacks, with about 200 incidents annually as of 2023, most victims being women. According to Masarrat Misbah, founder of the Depilex Smileagain Foundation, women have been targeted for rejecting marriage proposals, giving birth to daughters instead of sons, or insufficient dowry. The 2011 Acid and Burn Crime Bill criminalised acid attacks, making them punishable by lengthy imprisonment and fines.[392]\n\nIn parts of Pakistan, girls are given in marriage to settle disputes or crimes between families in a customary practice called Vani. Girls married through this practice are often treated as compensation for a dispute, which places them in a vulnerable social position within the family they marry into. In 2021, the Federal Shariat Court declared the practice un-Islamic and unconstitutional, reaffirming earlier Supreme Court jurisprudence.[393]\n\nUN Women reported in 2024 that around one in six girls in Pakistan are married during childhood, with the country home to nearly 19 million child brides.[394] In 2025, Pakistan enacted a law setting the minimum legal age for marriage at 18 and introducing penalties for arranging underage marriages; the law is limited to the Islamabad Capital Territory and does not apply nationwide.[395]\n\nEconomy\n\n\n\n\n\nEconomic indicators\n\nGDP (PPP)$1.8\u00a0trillion (2026)[396]\n\nGDP (PPP) per capita$7,330 (2026)[397]\n\nGDP (nominal)$407.79\u00a0billion (2025)[398]\n\nGDP (nominal) per capita$1,700 (2025)[399]\n\nReal GDP growth3.6% (2026)[400]\n\nCPI inflation4.5% (2025)[401]\n\nUnemployment8% (2025)[401]\n\nLabour force participation rate53% (2024)[402]\n\nGini29.6 (2018)[403]\n\nHDI0.544 (2023)[404]\n\nTotal external debt$131\u00a0billion (2023)[405]\n\nNational wealth$678\u00a0billion (2022)[406]\n\nPakistan's economy ranks 27th globally by purchasing power parity (PPP) and 42nd by nominal GDP.[396][398] Historically, Pakistan was part of the wealthiest region in the first millennium CE, but lost ground to regions like China and Western Europe by the 18th century.[407] Pakistan is a developing country,[408] and part of the Next Eleven, poised to become one of the world's largest economies in the 21st century, alongside the BRIC countries.[409] The semi-industrialised economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, and industrial growth in Pakistan benefits significantly from agricultural expansion.[410] Pakistan's economy has shifted from agriculture to trade and services, with agriculture contributing about one-fifth of GDP and manufacturing one-sixth, while trade and services form the largest share.[411] In 2023, Pakistan was the 66th-largest export economy,[412] with a trade deficit of US$21.3\u202fbillion.[413]\n\nA poor boy in Balochistan, around 44.7% of the population live below the international poverty line in Pakistan[414]Handcrafts seller girl in Sindh, 16.5% of Pakistani population live in extreme poverty on less than US$3 a day[414]\n\nAs of 2025, Pakistan's nominal GDP stood at US$407.79\u00a0billion,[398] while GDP (PPP) was US$1.8 trillion in 2026.[396] The nominal per capita GDP was US$1,700,[399] and the GDP (PPP)/capita amounted to US$6,950 (international dollars).[397] Around 44.7% of the population live below the international poverty line of US$4.20 a day, 16.5% live in extreme poverty on less than US$3 a day,[414] 8% of the total labour force is unemployed, and CPI inflation in 2025 was 4.5%.[400] Pakistan ranks near the bottom globally on the Global Gender Gap Index's economic participation and opportunity sub-index for women, reflecting very low female labour force participation and limited representation of women in senior economic roles.[415] Pakistan's middle class is estimated to be around 40\u201350 million people, representing 15\u201320 per cent of the population.[416] Among South Asian countries, Pakistan's GDP growth rate of 2.5% in 2024 was the second lowest after Afghanistan.[417]\n\nPakistan has strong potential to produce diverse food commodities due to its vast natural resource base across varied ecological and climatic zones.[418] It has the world's 7th-largest labour force,[419] and its diaspora of around 10 million,[420] sent US$38.3 billion in remittances in fiscal year 2024\u201325, as reported by the Special Investment Facilitation Council.[421] Pakistan's share of global exports averaged 0.14% between 1990 and 2023 and was 0.12% in 2023.[422]\n\nServices\nAs of 2025\u201326, the services sector was the largest contributor to Pakistan's GDP, accounting for 58.42% of GDP.[423] The sector accounted for 41.6% of total employment in 2024\u201325.[424] In the International Telecommunication Union's ICT Development Index, Pakistan's score increased from 56.4 in 2025 to 67.7 in 2026, an increase of 20% from 2025.[425] Approximately 57% of Pakistan's population used the Internet in 2024.[426] In fiscal year 2023\u201324, Pakistan's ICT exports rose to a record $2.6 billion.[427] Pakistan ranks among the world's top five freelancing markets,[428] with an estimated three million freelancers. During the first ten months of fiscal year 2025\u201326, freelancers earned more than US$950 million in foreign exchange.[429]\n\nAgriculture\n\n\nPakistan is the 6th largest producer of dates in the world[430]\n\nThe agriculture sector employs 43.5% of the labour force and is a major source of foreign exchange.[431] Pakistan produced 28.98\u202fmillion metric tons of wheat in 2025/2026 (3% of global output), ranking 7th globally.[432] Pakistan ranks fourth in cotton production,[433] fifth in sugar production,[434] and is the fourth-largest milk producer globally. Though land and water resources haven't increased proportionately, productivity gains, especially from the Green Revolution in the late 1960s and 1970s, significantly boosted wheat and rice yields. Private tube wells and High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) further augmented crop yields.[435] Meat industry accounts for 1.4 percent of overall GDP.[436]\n\nIndustry\n\n\n\nIndustry, constituting 19.74% of GDP and 24% of total employment, is the second-largest sector. Large-scale manufacturing (LSM) dominates, representing 12.2% of GDP, with cement production thriving due to demand from Afghanistan and the domestic real estate sector.[437] In 2013, Pakistan exported 7,708,557 metric tons of cement, with an installed capacity of 44,768,250 metric tons.[438] The textile industry, a key player in Pakistan's manufacturing, contributes 9.5% to GDP and employs around 15 million people. As of 2022, Pakistan ranks seventh globally in cotton production,[439] with substantial spinning capacity, making it a major exporter of textile products in Asia.[440] China has been a significant buyer of Pakistani textiles, importing US$1.527 billion worth of textiles in 2012.[441]\n\nTourism\n\n\nShangrila Lake and adjoining resort in Skardu, Gilgit-Baltistan\n\nPakistan drew around 6.6 million foreign tourists in 2018.[442] Pakistan boasts attractions from mangroves in the south to Himalayan hill stations in the northeast, including ancient Buddhist ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Taxila, the 5,000-year-old Indus Valley civilisation sites such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa,[443] and numerous mountain peaks over 7,000 metres (23,000 feet).[444] The northern part of Pakistan boasts numerous old fortresses, showcasing ancient architecture. It encompasses the Hunza and Chitral valleys, where the small pre-Islamic Kalasha community resides, claiming descent from Alexander the Great.[445] Lahore, Pakistan's cultural capital, contains lots of Mughal architecture, including the Badshahi Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens, the Tomb of Jahangir, and the Lahore Fort. Following the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, The Guardian highlighted \"The top five tourist sites in Pakistan\" to boost tourism, featuring destinations like Taxila, Lahore, the Karakoram Highway, Karimabad, and Lake Saiful Muluk.[446] Festivals and government initiatives aim to promote Pakistan's cultural heritage.[447] In 2015, the World Economic Forum ranked Pakistan 125th out of 141 countries in its Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report.[448]\n\nNatural resources\n\nSurface mining in Sindh\nPakistan's untapped coal reserves have been estimated as the fifth largest in the world and equivalent to about 400 billion barrels of oil, exceeding the combined oil reserves of Saudi Arabia and Iran.[449] Daniel Fitzgerald Runde wrote in Forbes in 2016 that Pakistan \"could be the 'Saudi Arabia of Coal'.\"[450]\n\nThe Reko Diq Mine has one of the world's largest undeveloped copper deposits, with an estimated 15 million tonnes in reserves,[451] and is expected to become the world's fifth largest copper mine upon completion;[452] a feasibility study also estimates that it could produce approximately 17.9 million ounces of gold over its projected 37-year mine life, with total copper and gold reserves valued at over $60 billion at prevailing prices.[453]\n\nInfrastructure\n\nPakistan was the sixteenth most water-stressed country in the world in 2022.\nPakistan was lauded as the top nation for infrastructure development in South Asia during the 2016 annual meetings of the IMF and World Bank.[454]\n\nPower and energy\n\nTarbela Dam, the largest earth filled dam in the world, was constructed in 1968.\n\nAs of May 2021, Pakistan operates six licensed commercial nuclear power plants.[455] The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) oversees these plants, while the Pakistan Nuclear Regulatory Authority ensures their safe operation.[456] These plants contribute approximately 5.8% to Pakistan's electricity supply, while fossil fuels (crude oil and natural gas) provide 64.2%, hydroelectric power provides 29.9%, and coal contributes 0.1%.[457][458] The KANUPP-I, Pakistan's first commercial nuclear power plant, was supplied by Canada in 1971. Sino-Pakistani nuclear cooperation began in the 1980s, leading to the establishment of CHASNUPP-I. In 2005, both countries proposed a joint energy security plan, aiming for a generation capacity exceeding 160,000 MWe by 2030. Pakistan's Nuclear Energy Vision 2050 targets a capacity of 40,000 MWe,[459] with 8,900 MWe expected by 2030.[460]\n\nIn June 2008, the nuclear complex at Chashma in Punjab Province expanded with the installation of Chashma-III and Chashma\u2013IV reactors, each with 325\u2013340 MWe, costing \u20a8129 billion, with \u20a880 billion from international sources, mainly China. Another agreement for China's assistance was signed in October 2008, seen as a response to the US\u2013India agreement. The project's cost was then US$1.7 billion, with a foreign loan of US$1.07 billion. In 2013, Pakistan established a second nuclear complex in Karachi with plans for additional reactors, similar to Chashma.[461] Electrical energy in Pakistan is generated by various corporations and distributed evenly among the four provinces by the National Electric Power Regulatory Authority (NEPRA). However, Karachi-based K-Electric and Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) generate much of the electricity used in Pakistan and collect revenue nationwide.[462] In 2023, Pakistan's installed electricity generation capacity was ~45,885 MWt.[463] Pakistan produced 1,135\u00a0megawatts of renewable energy for the month of October 2016. Pakistan expects to produce 10,000\u00a0megawatts of renewable energy by 2025.[464]\n\nTransport\n\nThe motorway passes through the Salt Range mountains.\n\nPakistan boasts 2567\u00a0km of motorways and approximately 263,942\u00a0km of highways, which handle 92% of passengers and 96% of freight traffic. Despite constituting only 4.6% of the total road length, these north\u2013south links manage 85% of the nation's traffic. They connect southern seaports such as Karachi port and Port Qasim in Sindh, along with Gwadar Port and Port of Pasni in Balochistan, to populous provinces like Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa domestically, and neighbouring countries like Afghanistan, Central Asia, and China through the China Pakistan Economic Corridor.[465][466][467][468] According to the WEF's Global Competitiveness Report, Pakistan's port infrastructure quality ratings rose from 3.7 to 4.1 between 2007 and 2016.[469] The railway's share of inland traffic is reduced to below 8% for passengers and 4% for freight.[470] This shift led to a decrease in total rail track from 8,775 kilometres (5,453 miles) in 1990\u201391 to 7,791 kilometres (4,841 miles) in 2011.[466][465]\n\nKarakoram Highway, connecting Pakistan to China, is one of the highest paved roads in the world.\n\nThe transport landscape of Pakistan features various modern transit systems. The Orange Line Metro Train in Lahore, inaugurated in 2020,[471] spans 27.1\u00a0km (16.8\u00a0mi),[472] and includes both elevated and underground sections, accommodating over 250,000 passengers daily.[473] Lahore also boasts the Lahore Metrobus, the first of its kind in Pakistan, operational since February 2013.[474] The Rawalpindi-Islamabad Metrobus, stretching 48.1\u00a0km, commenced its first phase in June 2015, with subsequent extensions, and employs e-ticketing and an Intelligent Transportation System.[475][476] Multan Metrobus, inaugurated in January 2017, serves Multan with its rapid transit services.[477][478] Peshawar's Bus Rapid Transit, inaugurated in August 2020, marks the fourth BRT system in Pakistan. Karachi's Green Line Metrobus, operational since December 2021, is part of a larger metrobus project financed by the Government of Pakistan and initiated in February 2016.[479][480][481] Meanwhile, Faisalabad awaits its proposed rapid transit project, the Faisalabad Metrobus.[482] Karachi Circular Railway, partially revived in November 2020, offers public transit services in the Karachi metropolitan area.[483][484] Additionally, plans are underway to resurrect Karachi's tramway service, which ceased operations in 1975, in collaboration with Austrian experts.[485][486]\n\nAs of 2013, Pakistan boasts approximately 151 airports and airfields, encompassing both military and civilian installations.[487] Despite Jinnah International Airport serving as the primary international gateway, significant international traffic also flows through Lahore, Islamabad, Peshawar, Quetta, Faisalabad, Sialkot, and Multan airports. The civil aviation industry, deregulated in 1993, operates with a blend of public and private entities while state-owned Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) dominates, carrying 73% of domestic passengers and all domestic freight.\n\nScience and technology\n\n\n\nDevelopments in science and technology have played a significant role in Pakistan's infrastructure, linking the nation to the global community.[488] Each year, the Pakistan Academy of Sciences and the government invite scientists worldwide to the International Nathiagali Summer College on Physics.[489] In 2005, Pakistan hosted an international seminar on \"Physics in Developing Countries\" for the International Year of Physics.[490] Pakistani theoretical physicist Abdus Salam won a Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the electroweak interaction.[491] Pakistani scientists have made notable contributions in mathematics, biology, economics, computer science, and genetics.[492]\n\nIn chemistry, Salimuzzaman Siddiqui identified the medicinal properties of the neem tree's components.[493][494] Ayub K. Ommaya developed the Ommaya reservoir for treating brain conditions.[495] Scientific research is integral to Pakistani universities, national laboratories, science parks, and the industry.[496] Abdul Qadeer Khan spearheaded Pakistan's HEU-based gas-centrifuge uranium enrichment program for its atomic bomb project.[497] He established the Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL) in 1976, serving as both its senior scientist and the Director-General until his retirement in 2001. Besides atomic bomb project, he made significant contributions in molecular morphology, physical martensite, and their applications in condensed and material physics.[498]\n\nIn 2023, Pakistan ranked 26th globally in published scientific papers.[499] The influential Pakistan Academy of Sciences guides the government on science policies.[500] Pakistan was ranked 99th in the Global Innovation Index by 2025.[501][502]\n\nThe 1960s marked the rise of Pakistan's space program, led by SUPARCO, yielding advancements in rocketry, electronics, and aeronomy. Notably, Pakistan launched its first rocket into space, pioneering South Asia's space exploration.[503] In 1990, it successfully launched its first satellite, becoming the first Muslim nation and second in South Asia to achieve this milestone.[504]\n\n\n\n\nPakistan witnessed a fourfold increase in its scientific productivity in the past decade surging from approximately 2,000 articles per year in 2006 to more than 9,000 articles in 2015. Making Pakistan's cited article's higher than the BRIC countries put together.\n\n\n\n\nFollowing the 1971 war with India, Pakistan hastily developed atomic weapons to deter foreign intervention and entered the atomic age.[506] Tensions with India led to Pakistan's 1998 underground nuclear tests, making it the seventh country to possess such weapons.[507]\n\nPakistan is the sole Muslim nation active in Antarctica research, maintaining its Jinnah Antarctic Research Station since 1992.[508] The government invests heavily in information technology projects, focusing on e-government and infrastructure.[509]\n\nDemographics\n\n\nPopulation Density per square kilometre of each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan CensusPopulation of each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census\n\n\nPakistan had a population of 247,541,947 according to the final results of the 2023 Pakistani census.[510][511][512] Pakistan is the world's fifth\u2013most populous country and has the second-largest Muslim population as of 2023.[513][514][515] Between 1951 and 2023, Pakistan's population expanded over sevenfold, going from 33.7\u00a0million to 247.5\u00a0million. The country has a relatively high, although declining, growth rate supported by high birth rates and low death rates. Between 1998 and 2017, the average annual population growth rate stood at +2.40%.[516]\n\nDramatic social changes have led to urbanization and the emergence of two megacities: Karachi and Lahore. The country's urban population more than tripled between 1981 and 2017 (from 23.8\u00a0million to 75.7\u00a0million), as Pakistan's urbanisation rate rose from 28.2% to 36.4%. Even with this, the nation's urbanisation rate remains one of the lowest in the world, and in 2017, over 130 million Pakistanis (making up nearly 65% of the population) lived in rural areas.\n\nDue to a high fertility rate, which was estimated at 3.5 in 2022, Pakistan has one of the world's youngest populations. The 2017 census recorded that 40.3% of the country's population was under the age of 15, while only 3.7% of Pakistanis were aged 65 or more.[517] The median age of the country was 19,[517] while its sex ratio was recorded to be 105 males per 100 females.[518] Pakistan ranked last (148th of 148 countries) on the Global Gender Gap Index, with a gender parity score of 56.7%, reflecting one of the lowest levels of gender equality globally.[519]\n\nThe demographic history of Pakistan from the ancient Indus Valley civilization to the modern era includes the arrival and settlement of many cultures and ethnic groups in the modern region of Pakistan from Eurasia and the nearby Middle East. Because of this, Pakistan has a multicultural, multilinguistic, and multiethnic society. Pakistan is also thought to have the world's fourth-largest refugee population, estimated at 1.4\u00a0million in mid-2021 by the UNHCR.[520]\n\n\n\nUrbanisation\n\n\nSince independence due to the partition of India, urbanisation has surged for various reasons. In the south, Karachi stands as the most populous commercial hub along the Indus River.[521] In the east, west, and north, a dense population arc spans cities like Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Sargodha, Gujranwala, Sialkot, Gujrat, Jhelum, Sheikhupura, Nowshera, Mardan, and Peshawar. By 1990\u20132008, city dwellers constituted 36% of Pakistan's population, making it South Asia's most urbanised nation, with over 50% living in towns of 5,000+ inhabitants.[522] Immigration, both domestic and international, significantly fuels urban growth. Migration from India, especially to Karachi, the largest metropolis, and from nearby countries, accelerates urbanisation, posing new political and socio-economic challenges. Economic shifts like the green revolution and political developments also play crucial roles.[523]\n\n\n\n\nvte Largest cities or towns in PakistanAccording to the 2023 Census[524]\n \nRank\nName\nProvince\nPop.\nRank\nName\nProvince\nPop.\n\n\n1KarachiSindh18,868,02111SargodhaPunjab975,886\n\n\n2LahorePunjab13,004,13512SialkotPunjab911,817\n\n3FaisalabadPunjab3,691,99913BahawalpurPunjab903,795\n\n4RawalpindiPunjab3,357,61214JhangPunjab606,533\n\n5GujranwalaPunjab2,668,04715SheikhupuraPunjab591,424\n\n6MultanPunjab2,215,38116GujratPunjab574,240\n\n7HyderabadSindh1,921,27517SukkurSindh563,851\n\n8PeshawarKhyber Pakhtunkhwa1,905,97518LarkanaSindh551,716\n\n9QuettaBalochistan1,565,54619SahiwalPunjab538,344\n\n10IslamabadCapital Territory1,108,87220OkaraPunjab533,693\n\n\n\nEthnicity and languages\n\n\nPakistan is a diverse society with estimates suggesting it has between 75 and 85 languages.[525][526] Urdu and English serve as the official languages, with Urdu being the country's lingua franca and a unifying force among over 75% of Pakistanis.[527][528] According to the 2023 national census, the largest ethnolinguistic groups include the Punjabis (36.98%), Pashtuns (18.15%), Sindhis (14.31%), Saraikis (12%), Urdu speaking people (9.25%), Balochs (3.38%), Hindkowans/Hazarewals (2.32%), and Brahuis (1.16%).[529][530] The remaining population consists of various ethnic minorities such as Kashmiris, Paharis, Chitralis, various peoples of Gilgit-Baltistan, Kohistanis, Torwalis, Meos, Hazaras, Kalash and Siddis.[531][532] The Pakistani diaspora, numbering over seven million, is the sixth largest in the world.[533]\n\nImmigration\n\nAfghan children near Islamabad fetching water from water pump. (Pakistan once held the second largest refugee population globally after Turkey.[534])\n\nEven after the 1947 partition, the Muslims from India kept migrating to Pakistan, especially Karachi and Sindh province.[535] Wars in neighbouring Afghanistan in the 1980s and 1990s pushed millions of Afghan refugees into Pakistan, mainly in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa and tribal areas, with some in Karachi and Quetta. Pakistan hosts one of the world's largest refugee populations.[536] Additionally, around 2\u00a0million Bengalis and half a million undocumented individuals, purportedly from Myanmar, reside in Pakistan.[537] Pakistan ordered the mass expulsion of undocumented Afghans in October 2023, citing national security risks.[538]\n\nMigration of Bengalis and Rohingya to Pakistan started in the 1980s and continued till 1998. Karachi hosts a significant number of Bengali settlements, and large Rohingya migration made it one of their largest populations outside Myanmar.[539] Karachi's Burmese community resides in various slums across the city.[540]\n\nAccording to BBC, thousands of Uyghur Muslims live in Gilgit-Baltistan, some left Xinjiang, China and the thriving trading town of Kashgar in 1949, while others are later arrivals, claiming to escape political oppression.[541] Since 1989, thousands of Kashmiri Muslim refugees fled to Pakistan, alleging rape and forced displacement by Indian soldiers.[542]\n\nDiaspora\n\nAccording to the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Pakistan has the sixth-largest diaspora globally.[533] Approximately 7\u00a0million Pakistanis reside abroad, mainly in the Middle East, Europe, and North America.[543] Pakistan ranks 10th globally for remittances sent home.[544][545] Saudi Arabia is the largest source of remittances, contributing $5.9\u00a0billion as of 2016.[546] The term Overseas Pakistani is officially recognised by the Government of Pakistan, with the Ministry of Overseas Pakistanis and Human Resource Development addressing their needs, welfare, and issues. Overseas Pakistanis constitute the second-largest source of foreign exchange remittances to Pakistan, with remittances increasing by over 100% from US$8.9\u00a0billion in 2009\u201310 to US$19.9\u00a0billion in 2015\u201316.[547][545]\n\nReligion\n\n\n\nIslam is the state religion,[221] with freedom of religion guaranteed by the constitution.[549][550] The majority are Muslims (96.35%), followed by Hindus (2.17%) and Christians (1.37%). Other minorities include Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Zoroastrians (Parsi), and the unique Kalash people who practice animism.[445] In 2012, 2% of the population identified as atheist in a Gallup survey.[551]\n\nIslam\n\nFaisal Mosque, built in 1986 by Turkish architect Vedat Dalokay on behalf of King Faisal bin Abdul-Aziz of Saudi Arabia\n\nIslam dominates in Pakistan, with about 96.35% of the population being Muslim.[552] Pakistan ranks second globally in Muslim population,[553] and is home to 10.5% of the world's Muslims.[554] Karachi is the largest Muslim city in the world.[555]\n\nThe majority follow Sunni Islam, with a significant presence of Sufism, while Shia Muslims constitute a minority.[556][557] Shias represent between 5\u201325%.[556][558][559] The Shia population in Pakistan was estimated at 42 million in 2019.[560] As of 2012, 12% of Pakistani Muslims self-identify as non-denominational Muslims.[561]\n\nThe Ahmadis are a minority, officially considered non-Muslims.[562][563] Ahmadis face persecution, banned from calling themselves Muslims since 1974.[564]\n\nHinduism\n\n\nHindu proportion of each Pakistani District in 2017 according to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics\nHinduism is the second-largest religion, followed by 2.17% of the population according to the census in 2023.[548] Pakistan had the fifth-largest Hindu population globally in 2010.[565] In 2023, Hindus numbered 5,217,216.[548][k] They reside across Pakistan but are concentrated in Sindh, where they make up 8.81% of the population.[548] Umerkot district of the province is the only Hindu majority area. Tharparkar district hosts the largest Hindu population. Four districts \u2013 Umerkot, Tharparkar, Mirpurkhas, and Sanghar \u2013 have over half of Pakistan's Hindus.[566]\n\nAt Pakistan's inception, the 'hostage theory' suggested fair treatment of Hindus to safeguard Muslims in India.[567][568] However, some Pakistani Hindus felt marginalised, leading to emigration to India.[569] In the aftermath of the Babri Masjid demolition they faced violence.[570]\n\nChristianity and other religions\n\n\nChristian proportion of each Pakistani District in 2017 according to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics\n\nChristians are the next largest religious minority after Hindus, constituting 1.37% of the population.[548] They are concentrated in Lahore District (5%) and Islamabad Capital Territory (over 4%). Karachi hosts a historic Roman Catholic community established by Goan and Tamil migrants during British colonial rule.[571]\n\nFollowing Christianity, the Bah\u00e1'\u00ed Faith had 30,000 followers in 2008, followed by Sikhism, Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, each with around 20,000 adherents in 2008,[563] alongside a small Jain community.\n\nEducation\n\n\nNUST in Islamabad is a top ranked Engineering University.\n\nPakistan's constitution mandates free primary and secondary education,[550][572] with public universities established in each province, including Punjab University, Sindh University, Peshawar University, Karachi University, and Balochistan University. The country's educational landscape encompasses both public and private universities, fostering collaboration to enhance research and higher education opportunities, albeit with concerns regarding teaching quality in newer institutions.[573] Technical and vocational institutions in Pakistan number approximately 3,193,[574] complemented by madrassahs providing free Islamic education to students,[575] with government efforts to regulate and monitor their quality amidst concerns over extremists recruitment.[576] Education is divided into six main levels, including nursery, primary, middle, matriculation, intermediate, and university programs.[574] Additionally, private schools offer a parallel secondary education system based on the curriculum set by the Cambridge International Examinations,[577] with 439 international schools reported in Pakistan.[578]\n\nMalala Yousafzai was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2014, alongside Kailash Satyarthi of India, for her advocacy of educational initiatives, particularly girls' education worldwide.\n\nInitiatives since 2007 made English medium education mandatory nationwide. Following a 2012 attack on activist Malala Yousafzai by the Taliban, she became the youngest Nobel laureate for her education advocacy.[579] Reforms in 2013 mandated Chinese language courses in Sindh, reflecting China's growing influence. As of 2018, Pakistan's literacy rate stands at 62.3%, with significant regional and gender disparities.[580] Government initiatives, including computer literacy since 1995, aim to eradicate illiteracy, targeting 100% enrollment among primary school-age children and an ~86% literacy rate by 2015.[581] Pakistan allocates 2.3% of its GDP to education,[582] among the lowest in South Asia.[583]\n\n\nCulture\n\nArtwork by Sadequain on the ceiling of Frere Hall. Having painted around 15,000 paintings, Sadequain is considered one of the finest painters and calligraphers Pakistan has ever produced.\n\nCivil society in Pakistan is hierarchical, emphasising local cultural etiquette and traditional Islamic values. The primary family unit is the extended family, but there's a rising trend towards nuclear families due to socio-economic factors.[584][585] Both men and women typically wear Shalwar Kameez; men also favour trousers, jeans, and shirts.[586] The middle class has grown to about 35\u00a0million, with another 17\u00a0million in the upper and upper-middle classes, leading to a shift in power from rural landowners to urban elites.[587] Festivals like Eid ul-Fitr, Eid ul-Azha, Ramadan, Christmas, Easter, Holi, and Diwali are primarily religious.[584] Pakistan ranked 56th on the 2006 A.T. Kearney/FP Globalization Index due to increasing globalisation.[588]\n\nArchitecture\n\nThe Lahore Fort, a landmark built during the Mughal era, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site\n\nFour periods define Pakistani architecture: pre-Islamic, Islamic, colonial, and post-colonial. The onset of the Indus civilisation around the mid-3rd millennium BCE heralded an urban culture, evidenced by surviving large structures.[589] Notable pre-Islamic settlements include Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Kot Diji.[590] The fusion of Buddhism and Greek influences birthed a distinctive Greco-Buddhist style from the 1st century CE, exemplified by the renowned Gandhara style.[591] Notable Buddhist architectural remnants include the Takht-i-Bahi monastery in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[592]\n\nThe advent of Islam in present-day Pakistan marked the cessation of Buddhist architecture, ushering in Islamic architecture. The notable Indo-Islamic structure, the tomb of Shah Rukn-i-Alam in Multan, remains significant. During the Mughal era, Persian-Islamic design merged with Hindustani art, seen in Lahore's architectural gems like the Badshahi Mosque and the Lahore Fort with the iconic Alamgiri Gate. Lahore also boasts the vibrant Wazir Khan Mosque,[593] and the lush Shalimar Gardens. In the British colonial period, Indo-European buildings emerged, blending European and Indian-Islamic styles. Post-colonial identity shines through modern landmarks like the Faisal Mosque, Minar-e-Pakistan, and Mazar-e-Quaid. British architectural influence persists in structures across Lahore, Peshawar, and Karachi.[594]\n\nClothing, arts, and fashion\n\nA depiction of traditional clothing of women from Sindh\nThe Shalwar kameez is Pakistan's national dress, worn in all provinces: Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Azad Kashmir. Each province has its own style. Pakistanis wear a variety of fabrics like silk, chiffon, and cotton. In addition to the national dress, men often wear domestically tailored suits and neckties, especially in offices, schools, and social gatherings.[595]\n\nPakistan's fashion industry has thrived, blending traditional and modern styles to create a unique cultural identity. Regional and traditional dress remain significant symbols of native tradition, evolving into both modern and purer forms. Organisations like the Pakistan Fashion Design Council in Lahore and the Fashion Pakistan Council in Karachi host events like PFDC Fashion Week and Fashion Pakistan Week. Pakistan's inaugural fashion week took place in November 2009.[596]\n\nLiterature and philosophy\n\nMuhammad Iqbal, Pakistan's national poet who conceived the idea of Pakistan\n\nPakistan boasts literature in various languages including Urdu, Sindhi, Punjabi, Pashto, Baluchi, Persian, English, and more.[597] The Pakistan Academy of Letters actively promotes literature and poetry both domestically and internationally.[598] National Library contributes to literary dissemination. Historically, Pakistani literature consisted mainly of lyric, religious, and folkloric works, later diversifying under colonial influence into prose fiction, now widely embraced.[599][600]\n\nThe national poet of Pakistan, Muhammad Iqbal, wrote influential poetry in Urdu and Persian, advocating for Islamic civilisational revival.[601] Notable figures in contemporary Urdu literature include Josh Malihabadi, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, and Saadat Hasan Manto.[600] Popular Sufi poets like Shah Abdul Latif and Bulleh Shah are revered.[602] Mirza Kalich Beg is hailed as the father of modern Sindhi prose.[603] Pakistani philosophy has been shaped by influences from British and American philosophy, with notable figures like M. M. Sharif contributing to its development.[604] After 1971, Marxist thought gained prominence in Pakistani philosophy through figures like Jalaludin Abdur Rahim.[605]\n\nMedia and entertainment\n\nThe private print media, state-owned Pakistan Television Corporation (PTV), and Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) dominated media until the 21st century. Pakistan now boasts a vast network of domestic, privately owned 24-hour electronic news media and cable television channels.[606]:\u200a14\u201316,\u200a21\u200a The Reporters Without Borders has indicated pressure faced by Pakistani reporters, particularly when reporting against the military or government.[607] The BBC describes Pakistani media as \"among the most outspoken in South Asia\".[608] Pakistani media has been instrumental in exposing corruption.[606] In 2025, Pakistan ranked 158 out of 180 countries in the Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders, highlighting restrictions on freedom of the press.[609] According to the journalist Raza Rumi, in 2023, TV channels in Pakistan faced suspensions and legal threats for airing content critical of the government or military, while online platforms also experienced temporary takedowns.[610] According to a 2025 report, some newspapers have faced financial pressure\u2014such as withdrawal of government advertisements\u2014for publishing content critical of government policies. Both military and civilian governments have historically used such tactics.[611] Freedom House rated Pakistan's Internet freedom as \"Not Free\" in 2024.[426]\n\nThe Lollywood, Punjabi, and Pashto film industry is centered in Karachi, Lahore, and Peshawar. Although Bollywood films were banned from public cinemas from 1965 to 2008, they remained influential in Pakistani popular culture.[612] However, in 2019, the screening of Bollywood movies faced an indefinite ban.[613] Despite challenges faced by the Pakistani film industry, Urdu televised dramas and theatrical performances remain popular, frequently broadcast by many entertainment media outlets.[614] Urdu dramas dominate the television entertainment industry, renowned for their quality since the 1990s.[615] Pakistani music encompasses diverse forms, from provincial folk music and traditional styles like Qawwali and Ghazal Gayaki to modern fusions of traditional and western music.[616] Pakistan boasts numerous renowned folk singers, and the arrival of Afghan refugees in western provinces has sparked interest in Pashto music, despite occasional intolerance.[617]\n\nCuisine\n\nRoti, served with various side dishes, is considered a staple food in Pakistan\n\nPakistani cuisine, rooted in the royal kitchens of 16th-century Mughal emperors, blends influences from British, Indian, Central Asian, and Middle Eastern culinary traditions.[618] Unlike Middle Eastern fare, Pakistani dishes are heavily spiced with garlic, ginger, turmeric, chilli, and garam masala. Roti, a wheat-based flatbread, accompanies most meals, alongside curry, meat, vegetables, and lentils. Rice is also common, served plain, spiced, or in sweet dishes.[175][619] Lassi, a traditional drink from the Punjab region, and black tea with milk and sugar are popular beverages enjoyed nationwide.[586][620] Sohan halwa, a beloved sweet dish from southern Punjab, is savoured across Pakistan.[621]\n\nSports\n\nA cricket match between Pakistan and Australia at Lord's.\n\nCricket is the most popular sport in Pakistan, followed by football. Field hockey is the national sport. Other sports like squash, polo, and traditional games are also enjoyed.\n\nIn cricket, Pakistan holds victories in all major ICC tournaments, including the ICC Cricket World Cup, ICC World Twenty20, and ICC Champions Trophy. The Pakistan Super League ranks among the top T20 leagues globally.[622][623]\n\nIn football, Pakistan established the Pakistan Football Federation soon after its creation, and it is known for producing FIFA World Cup balls.[624][625]\n\nIn field hockey, Pakistan holds four Hockey World Cup wins, eight Asian Games gold medals, and three Olympic gold medals. Squash player Jahangir Khan holds the record for the longest winning streak in professional sport history, winning 555 consecutive matches.[626][627] Pakistan has hosted various international events, including Cricket and Hockey World Cups and Asian Games.[628]\n\nSee also\n\nOutline of Pakistan\nGovernment of Pakistan\nAdministrative units of Pakistan\n\n\nNotes\n\u2191 Article 251 of the Constitution of Pakistan[3]\n\u2191 The Constitution designates Islam as the state religion.\n\u2191 \"Includes data for Pakistani territories of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir (13,297\u00a0km2 or 5,134\u00a0sq\u00a0mi) and Gilgit\u2013Baltistan (72,520\u00a0km2 or 28,000\u00a0sq\u00a0mi).[5] Excluding these territories would produce an area figure of 796,095\u00a0km2 (307,374\u00a0sq\u00a0mi).\"\n1 2 \"This figure does not include data for Pakistan-administered areas of Kashmir; Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan, which, according to 2017 Pakistani census, had a population of 4,045,367 and 1,492,924 respectively.\"\n\u2191 See Date and time notation in Pakistan.\n\u2191 Urdu: \u067e\u064e\u0627\u06a9\u0650\u0633\u0652\u062a\u064e\u0627\u0646, Urdu pronunciation: [\u02c8p\u0251\u02d0k\u026ast\u0251\u02d0n] \u24d8; Pronounced variably in English as , , , and .\n\u2191 ISO: \u0627\u0650\u0633\u0652\u0644\u0627\u0645\u06cc\n\u062c\u064f\u0645\u0652\u06c1\u064f\u0648\u0631\u0650\u06cc\u064e\u06c1 \u067e\u064e\u0627\u06a9\u0650\u0633\u0652\u062a\u064e\u0627\u0646, Isl\u0101mi Jumh\u016briy\u0101h P\u0101kist\u0101n\n\u2191 The precise time span of the period is uncertain. Philological and linguistic evidence indicates that the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas, was composed roughly between 1700 and 1100 BCE, also referred to as the early Vedic period. Oberlies gives an estimate of 1200\u20131100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book ten. Estimates for a terminus post quem of the earliest hymns are more uncertain. Other 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700\u20131100.\n\u2191 The World Bank data lists the total area of Pakistan as 770,880 km\u00b2, excluding Gilgit-Baltistan, Azad Kashmir, and water areas.\n\u2191 In the framework of their regional security complex theory (RSCT), Barry Buzan and Ole Waever differentiate between superpowers and great powers which act and influence the global level (or system level) and regional powers whose influence may be large in their regions but have less effect at the global level. This category of regional powers includes Brazil, Egypt, India, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Nigeria, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, South Africa and Turkey.\n\u2191 This number includes population of the Hindu (Jati) and the scheduled castes.\n\n\n\nReferences\n\u2191 Minahan 2009.\n\u2191 Jaffrelot 2015, p.\u00a097.\n\u2191 Ayres 2009.\n\u2191 Eberhard, Simons & Fennig 2022.\n\u2191 James 2022.\n\u2191 Bhandari 2022.\n\u2191 Wright (2009) \"The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with Mesopotamia and Pharaonic Egypt, was a cradle of early civilisation in the Old World (Childe, 1950). Mesopotamia and Egypt were longer lived, but coexisted with Indus civilisation during its florescence between 2600 and 1900\u00a0B.C. Of the three, the Indus was the most expansive, extending from today's northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and India.\"\n\u2191 Badian 1987.\n\u2191 Wynbrandt 2009.\n\u2191 Spuler 1969.\n\u2191 Copland (2001) \"However, the real turning point for the new Muslim League came with the general election of December 1945 and January 1946. Despite facing a rejuvenated Congress, the League won four-fifths of all the Muslim-reserved seats ... The result left no one, not least the British, in doubt about where the locus of power within the Muslim community now lay ... In most respects, therefore, the League's success in the elections of 1945\u201346 can be interpreted as a clear Muslim mandate for Pakistan. (p 72)\"\n\u2191 Metcalf & Metcalf (2006) \"The loss of life was immense, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand up to a million. But, even for those who survived, fear generated a widespread perception that one could be safe only among members of one's own community; and this in turn helped consolidate loyalties towards the state, whether India or Pakistan, in which one might find a secure haven. This was especially important for Pakistan, where the succour it offered to Muslims gave that state for the first time a visible territorial reality. Fear too drove forward a mass migration unparalleled in the history of South Asia. ... Overall, partition uprooted some 12.5 million of undivided India's people.\"\n\u2191 Talbot 2016.\n\u2191 Zia & Burton 2023.\n\u2191 Rais 2017.\n\u2191 Cornwall & Edwards 2014.\n\u2191 Joseph 2016.\n\u2191 Baqir 2018.\n\u2191 SATP 2024.\n\u2191 Aziz 1987.\n1 2 Saqib & Malik 2018.\n\u2191 Lahiri 2023.\n\u2191 Tummala 1996.\n\u2191 Anand 1991.\n\u2191 Parker 2017.\n\u2191 Burrison 2017.\n\u2191 Allchin & Petraglia 2007.\n\u2191 Rendell & Dennell 1985.\n\u2191 Coningham & Young (2015) \"Mehrgarh remains one of the key sites in South Asia because it has provided the earliest known undisputed evidence for farming and pastoral communities in the region, and its plant and animal material provide clear evidence for the ongoing manipulation, and domestication, of certain species. Perhaps most importantly in a South Asian context, the role played by zebu makes this a distinctive, localised development, with a character completely different from other parts of the world. Finally, the longevity of the site, and its articulation with the neighbouring site of Nausharo (c. 2800\u20142000\u00a0BCE), provides a very clear continuity from South Asia's first farming villages to the emergence of its first cities (Jarrige, 1984).\"\n\u2191 Fisher (2018) \"The earliest discovered instance in India of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map\u00a03.1). From as early as 7000\u00a0BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.\"\n\u2191 Dyson (2018) \"The subcontinent's people were hunter-gatherers for many millennia. There were very few of them. Indeed, 10,000\u00a0years ago there may only have been a couple of hundred thousand people, living in small, often isolated groups, the descendants of various 'modern' human incomers. Then, perhaps linked to events in Mesopotamia, about 8,500\u00a0years ago agriculture emerged in Baluchistan.\"\n\u2191 Allchin & Allchin (1982) \"During the second half of the fourth and early part of the third millennium B.C., a new development begins to become apparent in the greater Indus system, which we can now see to be a formative stage underlying the Mature Indus of the middle and late third millennium. This development seems to have involved the whole Indus system, and to a lesser extent the Indo-Iranian borderlands to its west, but largely left untouched the subcontinent east of the Indus system.\"\n\u2191 Dales, Kenoyer & Alcock 1986.\n\u2191 Consiglio 2015.\n\u2191 Behrendt 2007.\n\u2191 Flood 2022.\n\u2191 Oberlies 2023.\n\u2191 Stonard 2017.\n\u2191 Dandamaev 2023.\n\u2191 Sadasivan 2011.\n\u2191 Khan 2022, p.\u00a0114.\n\u2191 Cooke 2017.\n\u2191 Pollitt 1986.\n\u2191 Quintanilla 2007.\n\u2191 Kubica 2023.\n\u2191 Westmoreland 2019.\n\u2191 Needham (1994) \"When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BCE they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about CE\u00a0400.\"\n\u2191 Kulke & Rothermund (2016) \"In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship was the University of Taxila.\"\n\u2191 Mookerji 1989.\n\u2191 Banerjee 2022.\n\u2191 Wink 2002.\n\u2191 Mufti 2013.\n1 2 Hoodbhoy 2023.\n\u2191 Cavendish 2006, p.\u00a0318.\n\u2191 Stubbs & Thomson (2016) \"Perhaps best known as home to Asia's earliest cities, the Harappan sites of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, Pakistan's rich history includes contributions from prominent Buddhist, Hindu, Hellenistic, Jain and Zoroastrian civilizations, as well as those connected to its Islamic heritage.\"\n\u2191 Malik 2006, p.\u00a047.\n\u2191 Lapidus 2014.\n\u2191 Samad 2011.\n\u2191 Faroqhi 2019.\n\u2191 Junejo 2020.\n\u2191 Canfield 2002.\n\u2191 Chandra 2005.\n\u2191 Malik 2006, p.\u00a079.\n\u2191 Metcalf & Metcalf 2006.\n\u2191 Haleem 2013.\n\u2191 MacDonald 2017.\n\u2191 Qassem 2016.\n\u2191 Simpson 2007.\n1 2 Wolpert (1984, p.\u00a017) \"Barrister Jinnah of Bombay remained as remote from such feelings, as out of tune with such reasoning, as he had been in London in 1893, when Sir Sayyid first spoke of Hindus and Muslims as \"different nationalities.\"\"\n1 2 Sengupta (2023) \"Syed Ahmad Khan, the founder of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (which later became Aligarh Muslim University), had declared in a speech in Meerut what would become famous as the \"two nation theory.\"\"......\"Is it possible that under these circumstances two nations \u2014 the Mahomedans and the Hindus \u2014 could sit on the same throne and remain equal in power? Most certainly not.\"\n1 2 3 Holt & Curta 2016.\n\u2191 Wolpert 1984.\n\u2191 Rustomji 1952.\n\u2191 Walbridge 2012.\n\u2191 Gayer 2014.\n\u2191 Sharma, D'Angelo & Giri 2020.\n\u2191 Pirbhai 2009.\n\u2191 Harjani 2018.\n\u2191 Cook 1975.\n\u2191 Khan 2022, p.\u00a0119.\n\u2191 Cavendish 2006, p.\u00a0365.\n\u2191 Law 1999.\n\u2191 Hussain 2015.\n\u2191 Nyrop 1975, p.\u00a0371.\n\u2191 Hali & Akhtar 1993.\n\u2191 Hardy (1972) \"Much has been made' of the failure of Congress and the Muslim parties to agree over the Nehru Report and of the rejection of Jinnah's 'Fourteen Points' as a significant milestone along the way to the partition of India. A great opportunity was lost, it is thought, for the abandonment of separate electorates by voluntary Muslim agreement.\"\n\u2191 Wuthnow (2013) \"To satisfy Muslims' determination to have guaranteed rights in the future political system of India and to maintain territorial unity of the Indian state, by 1929 Jinnah produced the formula known as the Fourteen Points of Mr. Jinnah.\nThe Fourteen Points included separate electorates for Muslims in the provinces of India, parity of electoral representation in the Punjab and Bengal, and electoral considerations for Muslims in those provinces in which they were a minority, although they would retain clear majority in the Northwest Frontier Province, Baluchistan, and Sind.\"\n1 2 Singh & Shani (2021) \"Jinnah's famous 'fourteen points' as a condition for support for India's unity, with strong provinces within a weak Indian federation, marked the parting of ways between the Congress and the Muslim national leadership (Jalal 1994, 10\u201311). At the 1930 session of the All-Indian Muslim Conference, Sir Mohammed Iqbal proposed a Muslim homeland that would serve 'as a symbolic cultural expression of the common striving of Muslim fulfilment \u2013 a political manifestation of a common mission' (Gilmartin 1988, 167). The idea of self-determination for India's Muslims was constructed mainly in fear of the majoritarian 'secular' (Hindu) nationalism of the Congress.\"\n\u2191 Iqbal (two-nation theory): multiple sources:\nN. Khan (2012)\nBasu & Miroshnik (2023) \"Mohammed Iqbal was credited with coming up with the two-nation theory in his speech at Allahabad in 1930 to the Muslim League in a very formal way by saying: \"I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sind, and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Moslem State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Moslems, at least of NorthWest India\" (Zaidi, 1993; Ahmed, 1970).\"\nHussain (2018) \"After repeated demands for stronger constitutional safeguards to protect the rights of minorities, Iqbal eventually opted for a separate Islamic Republic instead. As opposed to putting the free and rational individual at the centre of his democratic theory, Iqbal's republic primarily required Muslims endowed with a specific character and smelted together by a peculiar vision of individuality. Like a number of his contemporaries, Iqbal warmed up to the two nation-theory. Unlike the mainstream view, however, which read an eternal struggle of Hindus and Muslims back into Indian history, Iqbal's concept of the Muslim nation was something to be striven towards, not something to be replanted from the past. Iqbal believed that the best way to actualize this national sentiment in the present, was through individual political action.\"\n\n\u2191 Pandeya 2003.\n\u2191 Basu & Miroshnik 2017.\n\u2191 M. H. Khan 2016.\n\u2191 Tucker (2020) \"Gandhi's decision played directly into the hands of Jinnah. Jinnah's Muslim League strongly supported the Allied war effort and thereby greatly advanced the possibility of the creation of a separate Muslim state in the Indian subcontinent after the war.\"\n\u2191 Chandra 2008.\n\u2191 Mohiuddin (2007, p.\u00a070) \"In the elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 90 percent of the legislative seats reserved for Muslims. It was the power of the big zamindars in Punjab and Sindh behind the Muslim League candidates that led to this massive landslide victory (Alavi 2002, 14). Even Congress, which had always denied the League's claim to be the only true representative of Indian Muslims had to concede the truth of that claim. The 1946 election was, in effect, a plebiscite among Muslims on Pakistan.\"\n\u2191 Mohiuddin (2007, p.\u00a071) \"Despite the League's victory in the elections, the British did not want the partition of British India. As a last attempt to avoid it, Britain put forward the Cabinet Mission Plan, according to which India would become a federation of three large, self-governing provinces and the central government would be limited to power over foreign policy and defense, implying a weak center.\"\n\u2191 Wolpert 1984, p.\u00a0309.\n\u2191 Markovits 2012.\n1 2 Wolpert 1984, pp.\u00a0328\u2013329.\n\u2191 Hakeem 2014.\n\u2191 NDTV 2025.\n\u2191 Cohen 2004, p.\u00a06.\n\u2191 Casualties/Genocide: multiple sources:\nSikand (2004)\nButalia (2000)\nIsaacs (1975) \"2,000,000 killed in the Hindu-Muslim holocaust during the partition of British-India and the creation of India and Pakistan\"\nBasrur (2008) \"An estimated 12\u201315 million people were displaced, and some 2 million died. The legacy of Partition (never without a capital P) remains strong today ...\"\nD'Costa (2011) \"Estimates of the dead vary from 200,000 (the contemporary British figure) to 2 million (a subsequent Indian speculation). Today, however, it is widely accepted that nearly a million people died during Partition (Butalia, 1997).\"\nBrass (2003) \"In the event, largely but not exclusively as a consequence of their efforts, the entire Muslim population of the eastern Punjab districts migrated to West Punjab and the entire Sikh and Hindu populations moved to East Punjab in the midst of widespread intimidation, terror, violence, abduction, rape, and murder.\"\n\n\u2191 Rape figures: multiple sources:\nVisweswaran (2011)\nDaiya (2011) \"The official estimate of the number of abducted women during Partition was placed at 33,000 non-Muslim (Hindu or Sikh predominantly) women in Pakistan, and 50,000 Muslim women in India.\"\nAbraham (2002) \"In addition thousands of women on both sides of the newly formed borders (estimated range from 29,000 to 50,000 Muslim women and 15,000 to 35,000 Hindu and Sikh women) were abducted, raped, forced to convert, forced into marriage, forced back into what the two States defined as 'their proper homes', torn apart from their families once during partition by those who abducted them, and again, after partition, by the State which tried to 'recover' and 'rehabilitate' them.\"\nSingh, Iyer & Gairola (2016) \"The horrific statistics that surround women refugees-between 75,000\u2013100,000 Hindu, Muslim and Sikh women who were abducted by men of the other communities, subjected to multiple rapes, mutilations, and, for some, forced marriages and conversions-is matched by the treatment of the abducted women in the hands of the nation-state. In the Constituent Assembly in 1949 it was recorded that of the 50,000 Muslim women abducted in India, 8,000 of then were recovered, and of the 33,000 Hindu and Sikh women abducted, 12,000 were recovered.\"\n\n\u2191 Hasan & Raza (2009, p.\u00a012) \"When the British Indian Empire was partitioned in 1947, 4.7 million Sikhs and Hindus left what is today Pakistan for India, and 6.5 million Muslims migrated from India to Pakistan.\"\n\u2191 Riggs 2024.\n\u2191 Bhaumik 1996.\n1 2 Kazmi 2003.\n1 2 3 Tucker 2017.\n\u2191 Akbar 2018.\n\u2191 Kumarasingham (2013) \"Few today, including those who work on the subcontinent, recollect that India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka did not become republics the day British rule ended. Even distinguished scholars of Empire like Perry Anderson and A. G. Hopkins have made the common assumption that India naturally became a republic upon independence on 15 August 1947. Instead, all three of these South Asian states began their independent life as Realms within the British Commonwealth and mirrored the style and institutions of the Dominions of Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Though their sovereignty was in no way impaired by this seemingly ambiguous position they all held the British sovereign as their head of state who was represented in each capital by a governor- general appointed on the advice of the local prime minister. India, Pakistan and Ceylon were Realms from 1947 to 1950, 1947 to 1956 and 1948 to 1972 respectively.\"\n\u2191 McGrath (1996) \"Undivided India, their magnificent imperial trophy, was besmirched by the creation of Pakistan, and the division of India was never emotionally accepted by many British leaders, Mountbatten among them.\"\n\u2191 Ahmed (1997) \"Mountbatten's partiality was apparent in his own statements. He tilted openly and heavily towards Congress. While doing so he clearly expressed his lack of support and faith in the Muslim League and its Pakistan idea.\"\n\u2191 Wolpert (2009) \"Mountbatten tried to convince Jinnah of the value of accepting him, Mountbatten, as Pakistan's first governor-general, but Jinnah refused to be moved from his determination to take that job himself.\"\n\u2191 Lapierre & Collins (2015) \"Not only was I not aware, but nobody was aware. Nobody had a clue. I'm glad I didn't because I just don't know what I would have done if I'd known that.\nYou see, Jinnah was so much of a one-man band. If somebody had told me he's going to be dead in x months would I then\n-I am asking myself this question now-would I have said, Let's hold India together and not divide it? Would I have put back the clock, and held the position? Most probably. I have a feeling Jinnah may not have known himself he had tuberculosis. He was a very severe, cold and repressed person. Nothing would have surprised me about him. He was an extraordinary creature.\"\n\u2191 Wilson 2009.\n\u2191 Hussain (2008) \"Mawl\u0101n\u0101 Shabb\u012br Ahmad Usm\u0101n\u012b, a respected Deoband\u012b \u02bf\u0101lim (scholar) who was appointed to the prestigious position of Shaykh al-Isl\u0101m of Pakistan in 1949, was the first to demand that Pakistan become an Islamic state. But Mawd\u016bd\u012b and his Jam\u0101\u02bfat-i Isl\u0101m\u012b played the central part in the demand for an Islamic constitution. Mawd\u016bd\u012b demanded that the Constituent Assembly make an unequivocal declaration affirming the \"supreme sovereignty of God\" and the supremacy of the shar\u012b\u02bfah as the basic law of Pakistan.\"\n1 2 Hussain (2008) \"The first important result of the combined efforts of the Jam\u0101\u02bfat-i Isl\u0101m\u012b and the \u02bfulam\u0101\u02bf was the passage of the Objectives Resolution in March 1949, whose formulation reflected compromise between traditionalists and modernists. The resolution embodied \"the main principles on which the constitution of Pakistan is to be based\". It declared that \"sovereignty over the entire universe belongs to God Almighty alone and the authority which He has delegated to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him is a sacred trust\", that \"the principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam shall be fully observed\", and that \"the Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accord with the teaching and requirements of Islam as set out in the Holy Qur\u02bfan and Sunna\". The Objectives Resolution has been reproduced as a preamble to the constitutions of 1956, 1962, and 1973.\"\n\u2191 Wynbrandt 2009, p.\u00a0190\u2013197.\n\u2191 Chowdhury & Mahmud 2008.\n\u2191 Kathpalia 1986.\n\u2191 Koumar 2023.\n\u2191 Lewis 2011.\n\u2191 Bose 2005.\n\u2191 Khan 2008.\n\u2191 Sunkara, Walter & Rojas 2024.\n\u2191 Hiro 2015.\n\u2191 Rummel 1998.\n\u2191 Beachler 2011.\n\u2191 Totten 2000.\n\u2191 Paxton 2016.\n\u2191 Oldenburg 2010.\n\u2191 Fitzpatrick 2007.\n1 2 Hoodbhoy 2011.\n\u2191 Krasno & LaPides 2015.\n\u2191 Khanna 2002.\n\u2191 Hajari 2015.\n\u2191 Coll 2004.\n\u2191 Westad 2005.\n\u2191 Haroon 2008.\n\u2191 Tucker 2015.\n\u2191 Chapman 2018.\n\u2191 Husain 2010.\n\u2191 Yap & Abeyratne 2023, p.\u00a068.\n1 2 Khan 2012.\n\u2191 Ahmad 2023.\n\u2191 Mazari 2003.\n\u2191 Chakma 2014.\n\u2191 Yarbakhsh 2019.\n\u2191 Khoja-Moolji 2021.\n\u2191 Fair 2014.\n1 2 Kennedy 2021.\n\u2191 Abid 2023.\n\u2191 Mohiuddin 2007, p.\u00a0219.\n\u2191 Martini, Ford & Jackson 2020.\n\u2191 Mansbach, Pirro & Taylor 2017.\n\u2191 United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations 2008.\n\u2191 Jaffrelot 2015, p.\u00a0261.\n\u2191 Kapoor 2009.\n\u2191 Waseem 2022.\n\u2191 Dede & Sadioglu 2016.\n\u2191 Ruhland 2019.\n\u2191 Burnett 2020.\n\u2191 Central Intelligence Agency 2023.\n\u2191 Afzal 2024.\n\u2191 Tariq & Stenson 2024.\n\u2191 Cheng et al. 2022.\n\u2191 Agarwal & Ahmad 2021.\n\u2191 Mordi & Adisa 2022.\n\u2191 Haque 2002.\n\u2191 Britannica (Gulf of Oman) 2024.\n\u2191 Dawn 2009a.\n\u2191 Karaman 2012.\n\u2191 Banerjee 2019.\n1 2 Mohiuddin 2007, p.\u00a03, 317, 323\u2013324.\n\u2191 Kreft 2007.\n\u2191 Geology: multiple sources:\nKhan & Clyde (2013)\nDeVivo et al. (2021)\nAlisibramulisi et al. (2022)\nBritannica (Azad Kashmir) (2024)\n\n\u2191 Descloitres 2002.\n\u2191 Cavendish 2006, p.\u00a0297.\n\u2191 Blood 1996, p.\u00a082.\n\u2191 Jiwani 2021.\n\u2191 Bright 2017.\n\u2191 Blood 1996, p.\u00a083.\n\u2191 Ahmad 2009.\n\u2191 Hasan & Raza 2009, p.\u00a010.\n\u2191 Samuel 2016.\n1 2 3 4 Chandrappa, Gupta & Kulshrestha 2011.\n\u2191 Blood 1996, p.\u00a087.\n\u2191 Lane, Norton & Ryan 2017.\n\u2191 El-Esawi 2019.\n1 2 Abul-Soad 2011.\n\u2191 Descals et al. 2023.\n\u2191 Spate & Learmonth 2017.\n\u2191 Sandhu 2010.\n\u2191 UNEP-WCMC 2024.\n\u2191 Akhtar & Mirza 2006.\n\u2191 PEPA 2016.\n\u2191 World Bank 2024.\n\u2191 Fatima 2020.\n1 2 Faridah-Hanum et al. 2015.\n\u2191 Grimmett & Inskipp 2021.\n\u2191 Hunter 2018.\n\u2191 San et al. 2021.\n\u2191 Flux & Chapman 1990.\n1 2 Srinivasulu & Srinivasulu 2012.\n\u2191 Waseem et al. 2020.\n\u2191 Sunquist & Sunquist 2014.\n\u2191 Sunquist & Sunquist 2017.\n\u2191 Stoneman 2021.\n\u2191 Tisdell 2013.\n\u2191 Srinivasulu 2018.\n\u2191 Roze 2012.\n\u2191 Somerville 2021.\n\u2191 Nyrop 1975, p.\u00a074.\n\u2191 CBD Report 2009.\n\u2191 Mallon & Kingswood 2001.\n\u2191 Woods, Mufti & Hasan 1997.\n\u2191 WWF 2024.\n\u2191 Grantham et al. 2020.\n\u2191 Inter-Parliamentary Union 1973.\n1 2 Munir 1975.\n\u2191 Cohen 2004.\n\u2191 Cohen 2004, p.\u00a065.\n\u2191 DeVotta 2015.\n\u2191 Tertrais & Sokolski 2013.\n\u2191 He, Breen & Allison-Reumann 2023.\n\u2191 Bloor 2023.\n\u2191 B. Chakma 2014.\n\u2191 Chengappa 2002.\n1 2 CRS 2023.\n\u2191 Rafiq & Ahmad 2016.\n1 2 Aziz 2018.\n\u2191 F. Hussain 2015.\n\u2191 Mahmood 1965.\n\u2191 Yap & Abeyratne 2023, p.\u00a0272.\n\u2191 Dowding & Dumont 2014.\n\u2191 Zierke, Stockmann & Meyer 2023.\n\u2191 Establishment Division 2013.\n1 2 Mahmood 2007.\n1 2 IFES 2013.\n\u2191 Establishment Division 2021.\n\u2191 Ahmad & Asif 2007.\n\u2191 Senate of Pakistan 2018.\n1 2 Wu, Bandyopadhyay & Lee 2021.\n\u2191 Jha 2016.\n\u2191 Oberst 2018.\n\u2191 Ejaz 2022.\n\u2191 Esposito 2003.\n\u2191 Dhulipala (2015, p.\u00a0496) \"The idea of Pakistan may have had its share of ambiguities, but its dismissal as a vague emotive symbol hardly illuminates the reasons as to why it received such overwhelmingly popular support among Indian Muslims, especially those in the 'minority provinces' of British India such as U.P.\"\n\u2191 Dhulipala (2015, p.\u00a0497) \"As the book has demonstrated, local ML functionaries, (U.P.) ML leadership, Muslim modernists at Aligarh, the ulama and even Jinnah at times articulated their vision of Pakistan in terms of an Islamic state.\"\n\u2191 Dhulipala (2015, p.\u00a0489) \"But what is undeniable is the close association he developed with the ulama, for when he died a little over a year after Pakistan was born, Maulana Shabbir Ahmad Usmani, in his funeral oration, described Jinnah as the greatest Muslim after the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.\"\u2026\u2026\"Similarly, Usmani asked Pakistanis to remember the Qaid's ceaseless message of Unity, Faith and Discipline and work to fulfil his dream to create a solid bloc of all Muslim states from Karachi to Ankara, from Pakistan to Morocco. He [Jinnah] wanted to see the Muslims of the world united under the banner of Islam as an effective check against the aggressive designs of their enemies.\"\n\u2191 Haqqani (2010, p.\u00a016) \"The first formal step toward transforming Pakistan into an Islamic ideological state was taken in March 1949 when the country's first prime minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, presented the Objectives Resolution in the constituent assembly.\"\n\u2191 Dhulipala (2015, p.\u00a0491) \"Khaliq drew a sharp distinction between this Islamic state and a Muslim state. He claimed that as of now Pakistan was only a Muslim state in view of the majority of its population being Muslim, and indeed could never be an Islamic state by itself. It could certainly fulfill its promise and destiny by bringing together all the believers of Islam into one political unit and it is only then that an Islamic state would be achieved.\"\n\u2191 Haqqani (2010, p.\u00a018) \"One of the earliest Western scholars of Pakistani politics, Keith Callard, observed that Pakistanis seemed to believe in the essential unity of purpose and outlook in the Muslim world: Pakistan was founded to advance the cause of Muslims. Other Muslims might have been expected to be sympathetic, even enthusiastic. But this assumed that other Muslim states would take the same view of the relation between religion and nationality.\"\n\u2191 Haqqani (2010, p.\u00a018) \"Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, however, were neither shared nor supported by the Muslim governments of the time. Nationalism in other parts of the Muslim world was based on ethnicity, language, or territory.\"\n\u2191 Haqqani (2010, p.\u00a019) \"Although Muslim governments were initially unsympathetic to Pakistan's pan-Islamic aspirations, Islamists from the world over were drawn to Pakistan. Controversial figures such as the pro-Nazi former grand mufti of Palestine, Al-Haj Amin al-Husseini, and leaders of Islamist political movements like the Arab Muslim Brotherhood became frequent visitors to the country.\"\n\u2191 Nazrul Islam & Saidul Islam 2018.\n\u2191 Lintner 2002.\n\u2191 Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p.\u00a0196) \"The Constitution of 1973 was created by a parliament that was elected in the 1970 elections. In this first ever general elections\u00a0...\"\n\u2191 Iqbal 2009.\n\u2191 Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p.\u00a0198) \"The 1973 constitution also created certain institutions to channel the application and interpretation of Islam: the Council of Islamic Ideology and the Shariat Court.\"\n\u2191 Nasr 1996.\n1 2 Kepel 2006.\n\u2191 Diamantides & Gearey (2011, p.\u00a0198) \"The Shariat judicial courts were not present in the original Constitution of 1973 and were later inserted in 1979 by General Zia-ul Haq ...\"\n\u2191 Haqqani 2010, p.\u00a0400.\n\u2191 Asia Watch Committee (U.S.) 1992.\n\u2191 Wynbrandt (2009, pp.\u00a0216\u2013217) \"Zia, however, tried to bolster the influence of Islamic parties and the ulama on government and society.\"\n\u2191 Syed et al. (2016, p.\u00a0379) \"...\u00a0the military dictator Zia ul Haq (1977\u20131988) forged a strong alliance between the military and Deobani institutions and movements (e.g. the TJ).\"\n\u2191 Syed et al. (2016, p.\u00a0346) \"The grave impact of that legacy was compounded by the Iranian Revolution, and Zia-ul Haq's anti-Shia policies, which added the violence and regimentation of the organization.\"\n\u2191 Ziegfeld 2016.\n\u2191 PRC 2011.\n\u2191 Nee 2013.\n\u2191 Wasti 2009.\n\u2191 Schuurmans 2023, p.\u00a063.\n\u2191 Fischer-Tahir & Naumann 2013.\n\u2191 PBS 2023.\n\u2191 Hussain 2020.\n\u2191 Davis 2023.\n\u2191 Adibelli et al. 2022.\n\u2191 Jan 2015.\n\u2191 Lansford & Muller 2012.\n\u2191 Berman & Sabharwal 2017.\n\u2191 Lodhi 2022.\n\u2191 Hamid et al. 2023.\n1 2 3 Rizvi 2004.\n\u2191 Picone 2020.\n\u2191 Stewart-Ingersoll & Frazier 2012.\n\u2191 Anwar 2006.\n\u2191 Pande 2011, p.\u00a0167.\n\u2191 Chakma 2012.\n\u2191 Kmentt 2021.\n\u2191 Izuyama & Ogawa 2003.\n\u2191 Noor 2023.\n\u2191 Embassy of the Russian Federation to the Republic of Malta 2022.\n\u2191 Shah 1997.\n\u2191 Wasi 2005.\n\u2191 Zahra et al. 2022.\n\u2191 Turner 2016.\n\u2191 Kemal 2004.\n\u2191 Hoekman & Kostecki 2009.\n\u2191 Qingyan 2021.\n\u2191 Clary 2022.\n\u2191 Karat 2007.\n\u2191 Mazzetti 2013.\n\u2191 Zaidi & Ahmad 2021.\n\u2191 Yousafzai 2021.\n\u2191 Zelnick 2013.\n\u2191 van Tonder 2018.\n\u2191 Schuurmans 2023, p.\u00a073.\n\u2191 Cohen 2011.\n\u2191 Schwinghammer 2018.\n1 2 Afridi & Bajoria 2010.\n\u2191 Roos 2024.\n\u2191 Lord et al. 2022.\n\u2191 Raju 2021.\n\u2191 Rimmer 2020.\n\u2191 Zreik 2024.\n\u2191 Dorsey 2018.\n\u2191 Shih 2022.\n\u2191 Pant 2011.\n\u2191 Pasha (2005, p.\u00a0225) \"Pakistan's expression of solidarity was followed, after Independence, by a vigorous pursuit of bilateral relations with Muslim countries like Iran and Turkey.\"\n\u2191 Pasha (2005, p.\u00a0226) \"Following Khaliquzzaman, the Ali brothers had sought to project Pakistan, with its comparatively larger manpower and military strength, as the natural leader of the Islamic world.\"\n\u2191 Dhulipala (2015, p.\u00a018) \"As a top ranking ML leader Khaliquzzaman declared, 'Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan \u2013 a pan-Islamic entity'.\"\n\u2191 Haqqani (2013, pp.\u00a020\u201321) \"Within a few years the president of the Muslim League, Chaudhry Khaliq-uz-Zaman, announced that Pakistan would bring all Muslim countries together into Islamistan \u2013 a pan-Islamic entity. None of these developments within the new country elicited approval among Americans for the idea of India's partition ... British Prime Minister Clement Attlee voiced the international consensus at the time when he told the House of Commons of his hope that 'this severance may not endure.' He hoped that the proposed dominions of India and Pakistan would in course of time, come together to form one great Member State of the British Commonwealth of Nations.\"\n\u2191 Haqqani (2013, p.\u00a022) \"During this time most of the Arab world was going through a nationalist awakening. Pan-Islamic dreams involving the unification of Muslim countries, possibly under Pakistani leadership, had little attraction.\"\n\u2191 Roberts (2003) \"The following year, Choudhry Khaliquzzaman toured the Middle East, pleading for the formation of an alliance or confederation of Muslim states. The Arab states, often citing Pakistan's inability to solve its problems with Muslim neighbor Afghanistan, showed little enthusiasm ... Some saw the effort to form 'Islamistan' as a Pakistani attempt to dominate other Muslim states.\"\n\u2191 Jafri, Sultana & Ijaz 2021.\n\u2191 Arora & Grover 1995.\n\u2191 Hunter (2010) \"Since then, Pakistan's sectarian tensions have been a major irritant in Iranian-Pakistan relations.\"\n1 2 Pande (2011, p.\u00a0159) \"Both Saudi Arabia and Iran used Pakistan as a battleground for their proxy war for the 'hearts and minds' of Pakistani Sunnis and Shias with the resultant rise in sectarian tensions in Pakistan. The rise of the Taliban in Afghanistan in the 1990s further strained Pakistan-Iran relations. Pakistan's support of the Sunni Pashtun organization created problems for Shia Iran for whom a Taliban-controlled Afghanistan was a nightmare.\"\n\u2191 Talbot 2020.\n\u2191 Rose & Husain 1985.\n1 2 Halladay, Matei & Bruneau 2021.\n\u2191 Panda 2019.\n\u2191 Basharat 2023.\n\u2191 Riedel 2010.\n\u2191 Visoka & Richmond 2022.\n\u2191 Maizland 2023.\n\u2191 Pande (2011, p.\u00a0178) \"The belief that the creation of Pakistan made Pakistan the true leader of Muslim causes around the world led Pakistan's diplomats to vigorously champion the cause of self-determination for fellow Muslims at the United Nations. Pakistan's founders, including Jinnah, supported anti-colonial movements: \"Our heart and soul go out in sympathy with those who are struggling for their freedom ... If subjugation and exploitation are carried on, there will be no peace and there will be no end to wars.\" Pakistani efforts on behalf of Indonesia (1948), Algeria (1948\u20131949), Tunisia (1948\u20131949), Morocco (1948\u20131956) and Eritrea (1960\u20131991) were significant and initially led to close ties between these countries and Pakistan.\"\n\u2191 Berg & Kursani 2021.\n\u2191 Babayev, Schoch & Spanger 2019.\n\u2191 Ahmed & Zahoor 2019.\n\u2191 Pande 2011.\n\u2191 Kahwaji 2025.\n\u2191 CIA 1988.\n\u2191 Kudaisya & Yong 2004.\n\u2191 Zahoor & Rumi 2020.\n\u2191 Bhattacharyya 2023.\n\u2191 Raghavan 2012.\n\u2191 Stone 2017.\n\u2191 Endrst (1965) \"Former Indian Defense Minister Krishna Menon who for years influenced the decisions of late Prime Minister Nehru himself a Kashmiri-put it bluntly last March in an interview with an American newsman when he said India could never agree to a U.N. sponsored plebiscite because 'Kashmir would vote to join Pakistan, and no Indian government responsible for agreeing to the plebiscite could survive.'\"\n\u2191 Khurshid 2016.\n\u2191 Oldenburg 2019.\n\u2191 Middle power: multiple sources:\nBuzan (2004)\nSolomon (1997)\nRajagopalan (2011)\nBuzan & Waever (2003)\nPaul (2012, p.\u00a011) \"The regional powers such as Israel or Pakistan are not simple bystanders of great power politics in their regions; they attempt to asymmetrically influence the major power system often in their own distinct ways.\"\nVandamme (2014, p.\u00a014) \"Countries like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan have enough influence to not be considered small, but not enough to be major powers. Within the limits of their regions, they play a significant political role. Thus instinctively, they would qualify as middle powers. While it is not the objective here to question the characteristics of Jordan's definition of middle powers, we argue that Pakistan is in fact a middle power despite its being nuclear-armed. When looking at the numbers, for instance, it appears that Saudi Arabia and Pakistan can be classified as middle powers.\"\n\n\u2191 IISS 2024.\n\u2191 Bartholomees 2008.\n\u2191 DeRouen & Heo 2005.\n\u2191 Blood 1996, p.\u00a0287.\n\u2191 Military relations: multiple sources:\nYadav (2024)\nLalwani (2023)\nKronstadt (2023)\nBruno & Bajoria (2008)\n\n\u2191 Wezeman et al. 2024.\n\u2191 Gates & Roy 2016.\n\u2191 Oetzel & Ting-Toomey 2006.\n\u2191 Center for Preventive Action 2024.\n\u2191 Busch 2014.\n\u2191 Sprague 2020.\n\u2191 Rupert 1989.\n\u2191 Withington 2005.\n\u2191 de Coning, Aoi & Karlsrud 2017.\n\u2191 Stewart 2002.\n\u2191 UN 2023.\n\u2191 Cordesman 1987.\n\u2191 Chengappa 2004.\n\u2191 Faruqui 2019.\n\u2191 Miller (2015) \"Not since the tenth century had such a maverick crew occupied Islam's holiest sanctuary, and for nearly two weeks Saudi Special Forces assisted by Pakistani and French commandos fought pitched battles to reclaim the compound.\"\n\u2191 Rizvi 1993.\n\u2191 Wiebes (2003) \"Pakistan definitely defied the United Nations ban on supply of arms to the Bosnian Muslims and sophisticated anti-tank guided missiles were airlifted by the Pakistani intelligence agency, ISI, to help Bosnians fight the Serbs.\"\n\u2191 Abbas (2015) \"Javed Nasir confesses that despite the U.N. ban on supplying arms to the besieged Bosnians, he successfully airlifted sophisticated antitank guided missiles which turned the tide in favour of Bosnian Muslims and forced the Serbs to lift the siege. Under his leadership the ISI also got involved in supporting Chinese Muslims in Xinjiang Province, rebel Muslim groups in the Philippines, and some religious groups in Central Asia.\"\n\u2191 ZA Khan 2012.\n\u2191 Jaishankar 2019.\n\u2191 Kureshi & Waseem 2024.\n\u2191 Imam & Fatima 2021.\n\u2191 Perito & Parvez 2024.\n\u2191 Wolf 2019.\n\u2191 Saeed 2021.\n\u2191 GI-TOC 2025.\n\u2191 Hussain 2025.\n\u2191 CPI 2025.\n\u2191 Gerber 2021.\n\u2191 Baderin 2017.\n\u2191 Tin 2008.\n\u2191 Singh et al. 2024.\n\u2191 Mubashar & Mir 2023.\n\u2191 Aftab 2022.\n\u2191 UN Women 2024.\n\u2191 Walk Free 2025.\n1 2 3 IMF (PPP) 2026.\n1 2 IMF (PPP per capita) 2026.\n1 2 3 IMF (nom) 2025.\n1 2 IMF (nom per capita) 2025.\n1 2 IMF (datasets) 2026.\n1 2 IMF (datasets) 2025.\n\u2191 World Bank (LFPR) 2025.\n\u2191 IMF 2023.\n\u2191 UNDP 2025.\n\u2191 World Bank (TED) 2024.\n\u2191 Shorrocks et al. 2023.\n\u2191 Maddison 2006.\n\u2191 Pasillas, Brundin & Markowska 2017.\n\u2191 Comim, Anand & Fennell 2021.\n\u2191 Henneberry, Khan & Piewthongngam 2000.\n\u2191 Burki, Teekah & Ziring 2026.\n\u2191 OEC 2023.\n\u2191 World Bank (WITS) 2025.\n1 2 3 Iqbal 2025.\n\u2191 WEF 2025.\n\u2191 Ahmad 2024.\n\u2191 ADB 2025a.\n\u2191 Sharif et al. 2008.\n\u2191 Conte 2025.\n\u2191 Abbas 2026.\n\u2191 SIFC 2025.\n\u2191 The Global Economy 2023.\n\u2191 MoF 2026.\n\u2191 PBS 2026.\n\u2191 ITU 2026.\n1 2 ISP 2026.\n\u2191 Jahanzaib 2026.\n\u2191 Khan 2025.\n\u2191 Dawn 2026.\n\u2191 Kader, Siddiq & Aleid 2013.\n\u2191 Khan & Khan 2018.\n\u2191 USDA 2026.\n\u2191 Ak\u0131n & G\u00fcrsoy 2024.\n\u2191 Saeed et al. 2026.\n\u2191 \"AGRICULTURE SECTOR: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS\". Retrieved 4 March 2016.\n\u2191 \"Manufacturing in Pakistan\" (PDF). Government of Pakistan. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 April 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2016.\n\u2191 \"All Pakistan Cement Manufacturers Association Export Data\". apcma.com. Archived from the original on 3 December 2024. Retrieved 15 October 2013.\n\u2191 Bhutta, Zafar (21 May 2013). \"Can't get enough: Soaring profits not enough for cement industry\". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 15 October 2013.\n\u2191 \"Countries by commodity\". fao.org. Food and Agriculture Organization. Retrieved 8 April 2025.\n\u2191 \"World Trade Statistics 2023\". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 8 April 2025.\n\u2191 Baig, Khurram (18 March 2013). \"Why the Pakistan textile industry cannot die\". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 15 October 2013.\n\u2191 Junaidi, Ikram (30 September 2019). \"Tourist traffic witnesses sharp increase in five years\". Dawn.\n\u2191 \"The road between China and Pakistan\". Financial Times. 4 July 2009. Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2010.\n\u2191 \"5 Pakistani peaks that are among world's highest\". The Nation. 11 December 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2017. Pakistan is home to 108 peaks above 7,000 metres and probably as many peaks above 6,000\u00a0m.\n1 2 Bezhan, Frud (19 April 2017). \"Pakistan's Forgotten Pagans Get Their Due\". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 11 July 2017. About half of the Kalash practice a form of ancient Hinduism infused with old pagan and animist beliefs.\n\u2191 Windsor, Antonia (17 October 2006). \"Out of the rubble\". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 25 May 2010.\n\u2191 \"Tourism Events in Pakistan in 2010\". tourism.gov.pk. Archived from the original on 9 February 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2010.\n\u2191 \"The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015\" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Retrieved 24 February 2017.\n\u2191 Dawn 2009b.\n\u2191 Runde 2016.\n\u2191 Mining.com 2026.\n\u2191 ADB 2025b.\n\u2191 Kiani 2025.\n\u2191 \"Pakistan has been recognized as Best Country for Infrastructure Development in South Asia by the Emerging Markets, the newspaper of the IMF/World Bank Annual Meeting \u2013 Embassy of Pakistan, Washington D.C\". Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 2 September 2021.\n\u2191 \"Pakistan's largest Chinese-built nuclear plant to start operating\". Reuters. 21 May 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2021.\n\u2191 (PAEC), Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. \"Nuclear Power Generation Programme\". Government of Pakistan. PAEC. Archived from the original on 9 February 2005. Retrieved 15 January 2017.\n\u2191 Kazmi, Zahir (7 January 2014). \"Pakistan's energy security\". Express Tribune. Retrieved 23 February 2015. Special report on Energy security efforts in Pakistan\n\u2191 Syed Yousaf, Raza (31 July 2012). \"Current Picture of Electrical Energy In Pakistan\". Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission. Directorate-General for Nuclear Power Generation. Retrieved 28 November 2012.- Zulfikar, Saman (23 April 2012). \"Pak-China energy cooperation\". Pakistan Observer. Archived from the original on 27 September 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2012.\n\u2191 \"PAEC plans 40,000MW by 2050 using environment-friendly nuclear power\". The News International. 17 September 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2017.\n\u2191 Syed, Baqir Sajjad (2 January 2014). \"8,900MW nuclear power generation planned\". Dawn. Retrieved 30 April 2017.- Ijaz, Muhammad, Director of Scientific Information and Public Relation (SIPR) (December 2010). \"PAEC assigned 8,800 MWe nuclear power target by 2030:PAEC contributing to socio-economic uplift of the country\" (PDF). PakAtom Newsletter. 49 (1\u20132): 1\u20138.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) [dead link]\n\u2191 Bhutta, Zafar (7 June 2013). \"Govt to kick off work on 1,100MW nuclear power plant\". Express Tribune. Retrieved 19 January 2015.\n\u2191 \"Power Sector Situation in Pakistan\" (PDF). Alternate Energy Development Board and GTZ. 2005. p.\u00a01. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 January 2011. Retrieved 26 December 2011.\n\u2191 \"State of Industry Report 2023\" (PDF). nepra.org.pk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 April 2024. Retrieved 19 April 2024.\n\u2191 \"Pakistan producing more than 1,000MW of clean energy\". The Express Tribune. 3 November 2016. Retrieved 3 November 2016.\n1 2 \"PAKISTAN\". Encyclopedia Nation. Retrieved 31 December 2011.\n1 2 Ahmed Jamal Pirzada (2011). \"Draft: Role of Connectivity in Growth Strategy of Pakistan\" (PDF). Planning Commission, Pakistan. pp.\u00a04, 7, 9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2012. 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Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2024.\n\u2191 \"Brahui\". Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.\n\u2191 Abbas, Zaffar (13 March 2002). \"Pakistan's Sidi keep heritage alive\". BBC News. Retrieved 26 December 2016.\n1 2 \"India has largest diaspora population in world: UN\". The Tribune. 15 January 2016. Archived from the original on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016.\n\u2191 Rafi, Yumna (17 June 2015). \"Pakistan hosts second largest refugee population globally\". Dawn. Retrieved 29 October 2016.\n\u2191 Khalidi, Omar (1 January 1998). \"From torrent to trickle: Indian Muslim migration to Pakistan, 1947\u201397\". Islamic Studies. 37 (3): 339\u2013352. JSTOR\u00a020837002.\n\u2191 \"Ten countries host half of world's refugees: report\". Al Jazeera English. 4 October 2016. Retrieved 30 April 2017.\n\u2191 \"Five million illegal immigrants residing in Pakistan\". Express Tribune. 16 January 2012. 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All say they were forced to leave as they were the victims of cultural and religious oppression in China.\n\u2191 Istvan, Zoltan (13 March 2003). \"Refugee Crisis Worsening In Western Kashmir\". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 5 March 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2017. The refugees claim that Indian soldiers forced them out of their homes\u00a0... For Kashmiri Muslims, Pakistan appeared safer than Indian-held Kashmir\u00a0... \"She was also raped by the soldiers,\" Ahmad said. \"Many of the other female refugees were also raped.\"\n\u2191 \"Pride and the Pakistani Diaspora\". Archives.dawn.com. 14 February 2009. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013.\n\u2191 \"OP News Discussions Archives\". Overseaspakistanis.net. Archived from the original on 11 December 2018. Retrieved 15 October 2013.\n1 2 \"Migration and Remittances: Top Countries\" (PDF). Siteresources.worldbank.org. 2010. Retrieved 19 December 2013.\n\u2191 \"Saudi Arabia remains largest source of remittances for Pakistan\". The Express Tribune. 16 July 2016. Retrieved 24 December 2016.\n\u2191 Iqbal, Shahid (16 July 2016). \"$20 billion remittances received in FY16\". Dawn. Retrieved 20 February 2017.\n1 2 3 4 5 \"Religious Demographics of Pakistan 2023\" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2024.\n\u2191 \"Constitution of Pakistan\". Story of Pakistan. Nazaria-e-Pakistan, Part IV. June 2003. Archived from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2020.- \"Religions in Pakistan | PEW-GRF\". www.globalreligiousfutures.org. Archived from the original on 23 January 2014. Retrieved 14 July 2021.- United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (June 2018). \"World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples \u2013 Pakistan: Christians\". Refworld. Retrieved 14 July 2021.- \"Headcount finalised sans third-party audit\". The Express Tribune. 26 May 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2021.\n1 2 \"The Constitution of Pakistan, Part II: Chapter 1: Fundamental Rights\". Pakistani.org. Retrieved 22 August 2018.\n\u2191 Husain, Irfan (27 August 2012). \"Faith in decline\". Dawn, Irfan. Archived from the original on 4 December 2012. Retrieved 16 December 2012. Interestingly, and somewhat intriguingly, 2 per cent of the Pakistanis surveyed see themselves as atheists, up from 1pc in 2005.\n\u2191 Muhammad Qasim Zaman, Islam in Pakistan: A History (Princeton University Press, 2018) online review\n\u2191 Singh, Dr. Y.P. (2016). Islam in India and Pakistan\u00a0\u2013 A Religious History. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN\u00a0978-93-85505-63-8. Pakistan has the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia.- see: Islam by country\n\u2191 \"The Global Religious Landscape\". Pew Research Center. December 2012. Retrieved 5 November 2018.\n\u2191 Khan, Nichola (2016). Cityscapes of Violence in Karachi: Publics and Counterpublics. Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-086978-6. ... With a population of over 23 million Karachi is also the world's largest Muslim city, the world's seventh largest conurbation ...\n1 2 \"Country Profile: Pakistan\" (PDF). Library of Congress Country Studies on Pakistan. Library of Congress. February 2005. Retrieved 1 September 2010. Religion: The overwhelming majority of the population (96.4 percent) is Muslim, of whom approximately 95 percent are Sunni follows Sufism and 5 percent Shia.\n\u2191 \"Religions: Muslim 96.4% (Sunni 75%, Shia 20%), other\". Pakistan (includes Christian and Hindu) 5%. The World Factbook. CIA. 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2010.- Miller, Tracy, ed. (7 October 2009). \"Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population\". Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 27 March 2010. Retrieved 9 June 2010.- Miller, Tracy, ed. (October 2009). Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Muslim Population (PDF). Pew Research Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2010. Retrieved 28 August 2010.- \"Pakistan \u2013 International Religious Freedom Report 2008\". United States Department of State. 19 September 2008. Retrieved 28 August 2010.\n\u2191 \"Pakistan\". The World Factbook (2008\u00a0ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 13 February 2008.\n\u2191 \"The World's Muslims: Unity and Diversity\". Pew Research Center. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2016. On the other hand, in Pakistan, where 6% of the survey respondents identify as Shia, Sunni attitudes are more mixed: 50% say Shias are Muslims, while 41% say they are not.- \"Field Listing\u00a0: Religions\". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2010. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. 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LIT Verlag. p.\u00a0195. ISBN\u00a0978-3-8258-6347-0.\nWithington, Thomas (Autumn 2005). \"The Experiences of the Soviet Air Force in Afghanistan 1979-1989\". Air and Space Power Review. 8 (1). Royal Air Force: 115\u2013128. ISSN\u00a02634-0976. Retrieved 4 December 2024.\nWolf, Siegfried O. (20 June 2019). The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor of the Belt and Road Initiative: Concept, Context and Assessment. Springer International Publishing. p.\u00a0214. ISBN\u00a0978-3-030-16198-9. Retrieved 15 May 2025.\nWu, Chin-en; Bandyopadhyay, Kaustuv Kanti; Lee, Sook Jong, eds. (11 January 2021). Populism in Asian Democracies: Features, Structures, and Impacts. Brill Publishers. p.\u00a082. ISBN\u00a0978-90-04-44446-1. Retrieved 10 July 2024.\nYadav, Abhishek (9 February 2024). \"Turkiye\u2013Pakistan Defence Cooperation: Evolving Dynamics\". Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses. Retrieved 23 October 2024.\nYousafzai, Zafar Iqbal (7 December 2021). The Troubled Triangle: US-Pakistan Relations Under the Taliban's Shadow. Taylor & Francis. ISBN\u00a0978-1-000-51596-1. Retrieved 9 August 2024.\nZahoor, Bilal; Rumi, Raza, eds. (23 September 2020). Rethinking Pakistan: A 21st Century Perspective. Anthem Press. p.\u00a0221. ISBN\u00a0978-1-78527-493-0. Retrieved 30 August 2024.\nZahra, Abiha; Bouckaert, Geert; Jadoon, Muhammad Zafar Iqbal; Jabeen, Nasira, eds. (10 June 2022). Public Sector Reforms in Pakistan: Hierarchies, Markets and Networks. Springer International Publishing. p.\u00a043. ISBN\u00a0978-3-030-96825-0. Retrieved 3 August 2024.\nZaidi, Syed Muhammad Saad; Ahmad, Azhar (12 April 2021). \"From friend to foe: Post-9/11 Pakistan\u2013US relations; a realist perspective\". Asian Journal of Comparative Politics. 7 (4). Sage Journals: 727\u2013743. doi:10.1177/20578911211007936. ISSN\u00a02057-8911. Retrieved 8 August 2024.\nZelnick, Robert (September 2013). Israel's Unilateralism: Beyond Gaza. Hoover Institution Press. p.\u00a0126. ISBN\u00a0978-0-8179-4773-6. Retrieved 9 August 2024.\nZiegfeld, Adam (19 February 2016). Why Regional Parties?: Clientelism, Elites, and the Indian Party System. Cambridge University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-1-316-53900-2. Retrieved 21 July 2024.\nZierke, Niklas; Stockmann, Reinhard; Meyer, Wolfgang, eds. (21 November 2023). The Institutionalisation of Evaluation in Asia-Pacific. Springer International Publishing. p.\u00a0274. ISBN\u00a0978-3-031-36918-6. Retrieved 8 July 2024.\nZreik, Mohamad, ed. (2024). Soft Power and Diplomatic Strategies in Asia and the Middle East. IGI Global. p.\u00a0209. ISBN\u00a0979-8-3693-2445-5. Retrieved 18 August 2024.\n\n\nEconomy\n\nAbbas, Waheed (26 January 2026). \"Pakistanis in UAE can continue using their home country SIMs without blocking\". Khaleej Times. Retrieved 1 March 2026.\n\"Economic forecasts for Pakistan\". Asian Development Bank. September 2025. Retrieved 13 December 2025.\n\"ADB Approves Financing for Transformative Reko Diq Copper Mining Project in Pakistan\". Asian Development Bank. 22 August 2025. Retrieved 8 April 2026.\nAhmad, Mansoor (5 October 2024). \"From leader to laggard: The decline of Pakistan's middle class\". The News International. Retrieved 12 December 2025.\nAk\u0131n, Song\u00fcl; G\u00fcrsoy, Song\u00fcl, eds. (19 June 2024). Best Crop Management and Processing Practices for Sustainable Cotton Production. IntechOpen. p.\u00a0109. ISBN\u00a0978-0-85014-009-5. Retrieved 29 July 2026.\nBurki, Shahid Javed; Teekah, Ethan; Ziring, Lawrence (25 May 2026). \"Economy of Pakistan\". Britannica.com. Retrieved 28 May 2026.\nComim, Flavio; Anand, P. B.; Fennell, Shailaja, eds. (2021). Handbook of BRICS and Emerging Economies. Oxford University Press. p.\u00a01080. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-882753-5. Retrieved 31 October 2025.\nConte, Niccolo (17 October 2025). \"Ranked: The World's 20 Largest Labor Forces, by Country\". Visual Capitalist. Retrieved 28 February 2026.\n\"Initiating Thar coal project\". Dawn. 25 August 2009. Retrieved 5 April 2026.\n\"Pakistani freelancers outearn regional rivals\". Dawn. 30 May 2026. Retrieved 28 July 2026.\nHenneberry, Shida Rastegari; Khan, Muhhamad Ehsan; Piewthongngam, Kullapapruk (2000). \"An analysis of industrial\u2013agricultural interactions: A case study in Pakistan\" (PDF). Agricultural Economics. 22: 17\u201327. doi:10.1016/S0169-5150(99)00041-9 (inactive 13 July 2026). ISSN\u00a00169-5150.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2026 (link)\nPakistan: Request for a Stand-by Arrangement-Press Release; Staff Report; Staff Statement; and Statement by the Executive Director for Pakistan. International Monetary Fund. 18 July 2023. p.\u00a054. ISBN\u00a0979-8-4002-4851-1. Retrieved 30 April 2024.\n\"Pakistan: Datasets\". IMF. International Monetary Fund. April 2026. Retrieved 10 May 2026.\n\"GDP, current prices Billions of U.S. dollars\". IMF. International Monetary Fund. October 2025. Retrieved 21 December 2025.\n\"GDP per capita, current prices U.S. dollars per capita\". IMF. International Monetary Fund. October 2025. Retrieved 21 December 2025.\n\"GDP, current prices Purchasing power parity; billions of international dollars\". IMF. International Monetary Fund. April 2026. Retrieved 24 April 2026.\n\"GDP per capita, current prices Purchasing power parity; international dollars per capita\". IMF. International Monetary Fund. April 2026. Retrieved 24 April 2026.\nIqbal, Nasir (June 2025). The Poverty Illusion: When Numbers Distort Reality (Report). PIDE Knowledge Brief. Pakistan Institute of Development Economics. Retrieved 11 December 2025.\nMeasuring digital development: The ICT Development Index 2026 (PDF) (Report). International Telecommunication Union. 2026. ISBN\u00a0978-92-61-42541-8. Retrieved 24 July 2026.\nJahanzaib, Muhammad (2026). The Interplay of Geo-Politics and Geo-Economics in Pakistan's Foreign Policy. Singapore: Springer Nature. p.\u00a099. ISBN\u00a0978-981-9574-69-8. Retrieved 28 July 2026.\nKader, Adel A.; Siddiq, Muhammad; Aleid, Salah M., eds. (2013). Dates: Postharvest Science, Processing Technology and Health Benefits. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN\u00a0978-1-118-29244-0. Retrieved 3 July 2026.\nKhan, Iqrar Ahmad; Khan, Muhammad Sarwar (17 April 2018). Developing Sustainable Agriculture in Pakistan. CRC Press. p.\u00a0854. ISBN\u00a0978-1-351-20822-2. Retrieved 12 June 2026.\nKhan, Naimat (26 September 2025). \"Pakistan's freelance economy could top $1 billion annually with stronger support \u2014 association\". Arab News. Retrieved 28 July 2026.\nKiani, Khaleeq (26 March 2025). \"Study confirms over $60bn copper and gold reserves at Reko Diq\". Dawn. Retrieved 8 April 2026.\nMaddison, Angus (18 September 2006). Development Centre Studies The World Economy: Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics. OECD Publishing. pp.\u00a0241, 261. ISBN\u00a0978-92-64-02261-4. Retrieved 22 July 2025.\n\"Barrick warns of 'significant increases' to budget, timeline for Pakistan copper project\". Mining.com. 2 April 2026. Retrieved 8 April 2026.\nPakistan Economic Survey 2025\u201326 (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Finance. June 2026. Retrieved 21 July 2026.\n\"Pakistan\". Observatory of Economic Complexity. Datawheel. 2023. Retrieved 24 November 2025.\nPasillas, Marcela Ram\u00edrez; Brundin, Ethel; Markowska, Magdalena, eds. (31 March 2017). Contextualizing Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies and Developing Countries. Edward Elgar Publishing. p.\u00a0133. ISBN\u00a0978-1-78536-753-3. Retrieved 29 July 2025.\nPakistan Employment Trend Report 2025 (PDF). Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (Report). March 2026. Retrieved 24 July 2026.\nRunde, Daniel (1 March 2016). \"How U.S. Higher Education Partnerships Can Promote Development In Pakistan\". Forbes. Retrieved 24 April 2026.\nSaeed, Farhan; Suleria, Hafiz Ansar Rasul; Bader Ul Ain, Huma; Tufail, Tabussam, eds. (2026). Importance of Plant Based Byproducts: Nutritional and Functional Properties. Switzerland: Springer Nature. p.\u00a0289. ISBN\u00a0978-3-032-03503-5. Retrieved 29 July 2026.\nSharif, Shahzad; Javed, M. Siddique; Abbas, Azhar; Hassan, Sarfraz (Winter 2008). \"Impact of WTO's Trade Liberalisation on Selected Food Crops in Pakistan\" (PDF). The Pakistan Development Review. 47 (4, Part II). Islamabad: Pakistan Institute of Development Economics: 547\u2013563. doi:10.30541/v47i4IIpp.547-563. ISSN\u00a00030-9729. JSTOR\u00a041261240. Retrieved 27 February 2026.\nShorrocks, Anthony; Davies, James B.; Lluberas, Rodrigo; Waldenstr\u00f6m, Daniel (2023). Global Wealth Databook 2023 (Report). Credit Suisse Research Institute. p.\u00a023. Retrieved 15 July 2025.\n\"PM pleased as remittances rise by 26.6pc to hit record $38.3bn in FY25\". Special Investment Facilitation Council. 9 July 2025. Retrieved 2 March 2026.[dead link]\nThe Global Economy (2023). \"Pakistan: Percent of world exports\". The Global Economy. Retrieved 4 March 2026.\n\"Human Development Insights\". United Nations Development Programme. 2025. Retrieved 12 May 2025.\n\"Production - Wheat\". United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service. 2026. Retrieved 28 May 2026.\nGlobal Gender Gap Report 2025 (PDF) (Report). Insight Report. World Economic Forum. June 2025. ISBN\u00a0978-2-940631-89-6. Retrieved 13 December 2025.\n\"Labor force participation rate, total (% of total population ages 15+) (modeled ILO estimate) - Pakistan\". World Bank Data. World Bank. 2025. Retrieved 15 July 2025.\n\"International Debt Statistics\". World Bank Data. World Bank. 2024. Retrieved 15 July 2025.\n\"Pakistan Trade Summary 2023 Data\". World Bank. 2025. Retrieved 24 November 2025.\n\n\nFurther reading\n\nAllchin, F. Raymond (1993). \"The Urban Position of Taxila and Its Place in Northwest India-Pakistan\". Studies in the History of Art. 31: 69\u201381. JSTOR\u00a042620473.\nLieven, Anatol (2012). Pakistan: A Hard Country. PublicAffairs. ISBN\u00a0978-1-61039-145-0.\nMalik, Hafeez (2006). The Encyclopedia of Pakistan. Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-597735-6.\nMalik, Iftikhar (2005). Culture and Customs of Pakistan (Culture and Customs of Asia). Greenwood. ISBN\u00a0978-0-313-33126-8.\nMcCartney, Matthew (2011). Pakistan: The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951\u20132009. Routledge. ISBN\u00a0978-0-415-57747-2.\nRaja, Masood Ashraf (2010). Constructing Pakistan: Foundational Texts and the Rise of Muslim National Identity. Oxford University Press. ISBN\u00a0978-0-19-547811-2.\nSpear, Percival (2007). India, Pakistan and the West. Read Books Publishers. ISBN\u00a0978-1-4067-1215-5.\nStimson, Robert; Haynes, Kingsley E. (1 January 2012). Studies in Applied Geography and Spatial Analysis: Addressing Real World Issues. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN\u00a0978-1-78100-796-9.\n\n\nExternal links\n\n\nGovernment\nOfficial website\nPress Information Department \u2013 Ministry of Information and Broadcasting\n\nGeneral information\n\n\n\n\n\n\n30\u00b0N 70\u00b0E\ufeff / \ufeff30\u00b0N 70\u00b0E" ], "output": "readability", "pwd": "/data/archive/1787707422.231362", "schema": "ArchiveResult", "start_ts": "2026-08-26T01:23:44.718841+00:00", "status": "succeeded" } ], "screenshot": [], "singlefile": [], "title": [ { "cmd": [ "curl", "--silent", "--location", "--compressed", "--max-time", "60", "--user-agent", "Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel Mac OS X 10_15_7) AppleWebKit/537.36 (KHTML, like Gecko) Chrome/118.0.0.0 Safari/537.36 ArchiveBox/0.7.4 (+https://github.com/ArchiveBox/ArchiveBox/) curl/curl 8.14.1 (x86_64-pc-linux-gnu)", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" ], "cmd_version": "curl 8.14.1 (x86_64-pc-linux-gnu)", "end_ts": "2026-08-26T01:23:44.711234+00:00", "index_texts": null, "output": "Pakistan - Wikipedia", "pwd": "/data/archive/1787707422.231362", "schema": "ArchiveResult", "start_ts": "2026-08-26T01:23:43.181137+00:00", "status": "succeeded" } ], "wget": [] }, "icons": null, "is_archived": false, "is_static": false, "latest": { "archive_org": null, "dom": null, "favicon": "favicon.ico", "git": null, "media": null, "pdf": null, "screenshot": null, "singlefile": null, "title": "Pakistan - Wikipedia", "warc": null, "wget": null }, "link_dir": "/data/archive/1787707422.231362", "newest_archive_date": "2026-08-26T01:23:58.388799+00:00", "num_failures": 0, "num_outputs": 5, "oldest_archive_date": "2026-08-26T01:23:42.326337+00:00", "path": "/wiki/Pakistan", "schema": "Link", "scheme": "https", "snapshot_id": "726f63d3-937b-4c45-a452-fd564ab1c05f", "sources": [ "/data/sources/1787707422-import.txt" ], "tags": null, "tags_str": "", "timestamp": "1787707422.231362", "title": "Pakistan - Wikipedia", "updated": "2026-08-26T01:23:42.326107+00:00", "updated_date": "2026-08-26 01:23", "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" }